habitat_narrative
Terrestrial
Common Eland are highly adaptable ruminants, formerly inhabiting large proportions of the Nama- and Succulent Karoo biomes, as well as grasslands, Acacia savannahs, Miombo woodlands, semi-deserts and alpine moorlands (to altitudes of 4,900 m asl.) (Thouless 2013). Additionally, their range extended somewhat into the Fynbos Biome in southwestern South Africa (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). This species is generally absent from true deserts, dense forests, and entirely open grasslands; however, they are occasionally present in grasslands with substantial herb cover (Thouless 2013). Only anecdotal information is available on Eland water dependency: these animals can survive (and thrive) in arid regions (such as the Central Kalahari Game Reserve in Botswana) where surface water is absent, thus it is likely that they are able to meet much of their water requirements from their diet (Pappas 2002), but they will drink regularly when surface water is available (Kingdon 1997; Estes 1999; Pappas 2002).
Eland extensively utilise forb-rich montane grasslands of the South African Highveld (Rowe-Rowe 1983); observations in Mountain Zebra National Park (Eastern Cape, South Africa) also confirmed that vegetation type selection is mostly based on the presence and density of favoured browse species (Watson & Owen-Smith 2000). Seasonal habitat use by Eland is, therefore, supposedly driven by changes in forage quality and abundance conditions, and a number of studies suggested that Eland in savannah areas move from woodland to open grassland during the early wet season to forage on new growing grasses (Lamprey 1963; Hillman 1988; Buys 1990; Fabricius & Mentis 1990; Watson & Owen-Smith 2000). Similarly, Eland of the Drakensberg mountain range move from montane forest and sub-alpine scrubland into grassland at the onset of rains (Skinstad 1972). In the Kgaswane Mountain Reserve (North West Province) Eland are found on open grassland even during the mid-dry season, where they forage on the available green grasses (DâAmmando et al. 2015).
As large animals with high metabolic rates, Eland require high quality forage across all seasons, often selecting broad-leaf savannah woodlands and forb-rich grasslands, which provide green forage throughout the year (Owen-Smith 2002). Thus, they move long distances in search of ephemeral food sources (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). Eland have been described as browsers, grazers and mixed feeders preferring grasses, according to various studies which tried to estimate the grazing and browsing components of their diet (Lamprey 1963; Kerr et al. 1970; Hofmann 1973, 1989; Field 1975; Buys 1990; Gagnon & Chew 2000; Watson & Owen-Smith 2000; Cerling et al. 2003; Codron et al. 2005, 2007; Wallington et al. 2007; DâAmmando et al. 2015). They feed on the leaves instead of lignified plant parts (Kerr et al. 1970), while selecting for the greenest and lowest in fibre content forage types (Watson & Owen-Smith 2000, 2002). Although Gagnon & Chew (2000) reported that the diet of the Eland is composed of 50% grasses, the proportion of grass in the diet is extremely variable among different study sites (Cerling et al. 2003). In southern Africa, Eland have usually been considered browsers consuming small proportions of grasses during the wet season (Kerr et al. 1970; Buys 1990; Watson & Owen-Smith 2000, 2002; Sponheimer et al. 2003; Codron et al. 2005, 2007; Wallington et al. 2007). Only Underwood (1975) reported that Eland of the Loskop Dam Nature Reserve consumed grass proportions comparable to those recorded for east African populations. In Suikersborand Nature Reserve, diet remained unaltered between the wet and the dry season, with very low proportions of C4 plants (Wallington et al. 2007). Similarly, Watson & Owen-Smith (2000) found that grasses contributed only by 5.7% to the Elandâs annual diet in Mountain Zebra National Park, Eastern Cape, which comprised of mostly shrubs and dwarf shrubs. In the coastal grassland areas of the Eastern Cape forbs, and not grasses, forms a significant proportion of their diet (Mivuyo 2014). In contrast, results from feeding site surveys in the Kgaswane Mountain Reserve showed that Eland in this area tend to forage extensively on green grasses during the mid-dry season (DâAmmando et al. 2015). It is possible that Eland may be able to adapt to local forage conditions, widening their diet in order to include the highest-quality plant species available, modifying the acceptance frequencies of grasses versus browse. This extreme versatility in feeding habits could explain the wide geographic distribution and the quite catholic habitat preferences of this ungulate (Thouless 2013). Faecal analyses have shown that the nitrogen level of Eland faeces is consistently higher than that of grazers like Gemsbok (Oryx gazella) and Black Wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) during the winter, which reflects a higher protein intake by Eland (Buys 1987).
Breeding and calving seasons have not been clearly identified, and probably vary from one population to another (Kingdon 1982; Pappas 2002), with the high numbers of births coinciding with the rainy season. The calf is dependent on its mother only for the first two weeks of life, during which it is hidden in thick bush (Kingdon 1982; Estes 1999). When the grass lignifies and nutritive quality decreases at the end of the summer most calves are already a few months old and are less dependent on the females for feeding and protection, allowing the Eland to resume their browsing habits (Buys 1987).
Ecosystem and cultural services: Eland, through their browsing and grazing activities, play a facilitating role for more selective smaller sized ungulates (Venter et al. 2014). Eland serve as a food source for the larger predators, such as lion (Hayward & Kerley 2005). Eland also serve as a source of bushmeat in certain impoverished areas (Lindsey et al. 2012). In some provinces in South Africa Eland meat is donated to neighbouring communities as a token of goodwill from government nature reserves and parks.
