habitat_narrative
Terrestrial
The Caracal occupies a wide variety of habitats, from semi-desert to relatively open savannah and scrubland to moist woodland and thicket, evergreen forest, montane grassland, and arid mountains. It typically ranges up to 2,500 m and above 3,000 m asl in the Lesotho (Avenant & du Plessis 2012; du Plessis et al. 2014) and Ethiopian Highlands (Ray et al. 2005), and it occurs along the Drakensberg (Rowe-Rowe 1992) and Maluti (Avenant 2004) ranges. The species is absent from tropical forests and true deserts, and cover is needed wherever it occurs (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). In the Kalahari, Caracals showed a definite selection for dune slope aspect in relation to specific types of behaviour (Melville 2004). They did not select dune crests and dune slopes for specific activities more than expected, and the dune streets were selected less than expected except when killing prey. On rangelands where Caracals co-occur with Black-backed Jackals, the former are more common in the rocky areas than on open plains (du Plessis 2013). In the North West Province, Caracals occur in all vegetation types, but they generally prefer wooded vegetation types, especially mountain bushveld, and were found to have a local preference for the Gold Reef Mountain Bushveld (Power 2014). Caracals also occur in mountain and coastal fynbos, Strandveld, and in the various Nama and Succulent Karoo vegetation types. They are rare in Kruger National Park and adjoining private game reserves, where they appear to be more common in the mixed Combretum spp. woodlands on the granite landscapes. In such protected areas with large carnivores, they may be susceptible to interference competition. One particular competitor is the Leopard (Panthera pardus), with which they share a similar ecological role (see for example Norton & Lawson 1985; Braczkowski et al. 2012; Power 2014). Although spatial overlap between these species has been recorded (Jansen 2016: Namaqua National Park and surrounding farms; Cape Leopard Trust unpubl. data: Gouritz Corridor, Boland Mountains and Cederberg Mountains; M. Drouilly et al. unpubl. data: Anysberg Nature Reserve), interspecific killing of Caracals by Leopards has also been documented (Martins 2010) and Caracals are thus likely to avoid areas where Leopards are prevalent. In areas where large predators have been extirpated, such as on rangelands and in the Table Mountain National Park, the Caracal often assumes the role of apex predator (du Plessis 2013; Pohl 2015; L. Serieys, Urban Caracal Project, unpubl. data). On Free State farmland, Ferreira (1988) reported that Black-backed Jackal and Caracal numbers inversely fluctuated in some habitats where they co-occur, suggesting that these species may actively limit each otherâs numbers in certain areas; their diets do not only overlap to a large extent, but they have been reported predating on each otherâs young (Ferreira 1988; Pohl 2015), and adult Caracal even kill and eat adult Black-backed Jackal (Melville 2004; Q. Martins unpubl. data).Caracal prey mainly on small- to medium-sized mammals, from small murids to antelope up to c. 50 kg, but they also take birds, reptiles up to the size of a large Rock Monitor (Varanus albigularis), and invertebrates (Stuart & Stuart 2013; Pohl 2015; Jansen 2016; M. Drouilly et al. unpubl. data). Very little plant material is ingested, and then considered mostly accidental; larger quantities have been found in scats, but then together with scorpion remains (Avenant 1993). They are known to kill and eat other carnivores, including Black-backed Jackal, Aardwolf (Proteles cristata), Bat-eared Fox (Otocyon megalotis), Cape Fox (Vulpes chama), Water Mongoose (Atilax paludinosus), Cape Grey Mongoose (Herpestes pulverulentus), Yellow Mongoose (Cynictis penicillata), Polecat (Ictonyx striatus), African Wildcat (Felis silvestris), Small-spotted Genet (Genetta genetta) and even conspecifics have been listed (e.g. Stuart 1982; Bekker 1994; Avenant 1993; Kok 1996; Melville 2004; Braczkowski et al. 2012; Pohl 2015). Caracals sometimes scavenge (Mills 1984; Avenant 1993; Nowell & Jackson 1996); in the PNR, however, these instances could be traced to non-territorial cats and not the dominant males or females (Avenant 1993). Like Leopards, they are known to hoist their kills into trees (see Mills 1984; Davies 1997), and may also return to carcasses; for example, in the PNR, a female with young has been documented to return to a carcass for up to four nights (Avenant 1993).
Relative to their small size, Caracals can readily capture prey larger than themselves, such as Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) (e.g. Mills 1984; Avenant 1993; Pohl 2015), Mountain Reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) (Moolman 1984; Pohl 2015), Grey Rhebok (Pelea capreolus) (Pringle & Pringle 1979; Palmer & Fairall 1988; Stuart 1982; Stuart & Hickman 1991; Bekker 1994), Southern Bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus) (Stuart 1982), sheep (e.g. Stuart 1982; Moolman 1984; Ferreira 1988; Brand 1989; Bekker 1994; Gunter 2008; Strauss 2009; van Niekerk 2010; Pohl 2015), and goats (Moolman 1984; Brand 1989; Gunter 2008; Blaum et al. 2009; van Niekerk 2010; Badenhorst 2014; Jansen 2016). Together with Black-backed Jackal, Caracal is the major damage-causing species on small livestock farms (see du Plessis 2013; Photo 1), and more recently they have also been implicated as causing significant damage to the cattle (Thorn et al. 2012; Badenhorst 2014) and game farming (Power 2014; Schepers 2016) industries. They capture the young of virtually all game that are stocked, some of which (scarce species and colour variants) may be extremely valuable, financially. In the case of game farms, there generally is adequate small prey, as farmers are enlightened to protect buffer prey species, but the farms are so small, and likewise game populations are also small, that even modest levels of Caracal predation may have a significant impact to a landowner (Thorn et al. 2011; Power 2014; Schepers 2016). On the other hand, small stock farmers in the central parts of South Africa often complain that they do not get support from the game ranches and nature reserves in controlling Caracal (and Black-backed Jackal) as âthese are the areas where the two damage-causing species multiplyâ. Also in the small livestock and cattle industries the Caracalâs direct impact is mostly on the younger individuals, but some adults are also killed. Some of these individuals (e.g. breeding stock) carry a higher than average financial value and, again, their loss is a major cause of conflict between farmers and Caracals. A few instances of surplus killing of small stock have also been documented (Skinner 1979; Stuart 1986; Brand 1989). In the field of conservation, concerns of Caracal predation upon threatened colonies of African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in the Western Cape have recently been raised (L. Serieys, Urban Caracal Project, unpubl. data). We now also know that some Caracals are habitually killing domestic cats in golf estates, in the same province (L. Serieys, Urban Caracal Project, unpubl. data).
Home range studies have mostly been conducted in South Africa and Namibia (see Bothma & Le Riche 1994; Moolman 1986; Avenant 1993; Avenant & Nel 1998; Marker & Dickman 2005). Environmental variables such as the size, density, composition and distribution of available prey, the type and density of sympatric predators, habitat characteristics (including the amount of cover), and the degree of persecution by humans have all been indicated as having a marked impact on Caracal home range size and use (see du Plessis 2013). Consequently, relatively large home ranges were observed in more arid areas (Bothma & Le Riche 1994: one male in the KTP had a range size of c. 300 km²; Van Heezik & Seddon 1998; Marker & Dickman 2005: three males on Namibian rangeland, averaging 316 km²), mountainous terrain (Norton & Lawson 1985: a single male tracked in mountains in the Western Cape, 65 km²; Q. Martins unpubl. data: three males in the Cederberg mountains, averaging 184 km², and one female, 44 km²) and on farmland (Moolman 1986: male and female home ranges larger on farms around the MZNP than inside the Park; also Marker & Dickman 2005, see above; Drouilly et al. unpubl. data: two males on Central Karoo farms, averaging c. 56 km2). Inside the PNR and the MZNP, home ranges were relatively small: two male home ranges averaged 26.9 km² in PNR (Avenant & Nel 1998), while seven males both in and adjacent the MZNP had home ranges of between 15 and 19 km² (Moolman 1986). Female home ranges are considerably smaller than those of males, as is the case with most solitary felids, and can be attributed to the larger malesâ higher energy requirements (SMNs), the fact that they may select for larger prey, or the malesâ social needs, where one maleâs home range typically overlaps with those of a number of females (Avenant 1993).
Ecosystem and cultural services: Caracals have a wide and almost uninterrupted distribution in South Africa, where they feed opportunistically on a wide variety of prey, ranging from invertebrates, reptiles and birds to sympatric carnivores and mammals of up to > 50 kg. They, therefore, serve as key regulators in the ecosystem, suppressing both competing predators and prey populations, and are therefore important for the conservation of biodiversity (see e.g. Avenant 1993; du Plessis 2013; Pohl 2015). The importance of this role increases in the different regions of South Africa, such as the central Karoo, and large areas of the Western Cape, Gauteng and the Free State, where Caracals fill (mostly together with Black-backed Jackal) the role of apex predator. The exclusion of Caracals from, or their severe suppression in, ecosystems will almost certainly have direct negative impacts, such as smaller-predator release, an eruption of prey numbers, an overexploitation of associated species, and a decrease in vertebrate and invertebrate species. Indirectly, this may potentially also start a cascade effect leading to an overall decrease in biodiversity and healthy ecosystem functioning.
In addition, many of these competing predator and prey species can themselves be damage-causing: e.g. rodents destroying crops, Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis) competing for forage with sheep, mole-rat tunnels causing damage to tractors and ploughs, carnivores (e.g. Yellow Mongoose and Black-backed Jackal) and rodents carrying disease, and carnivores that are problem predators to livestock or poultry farming (e.g. Black-backed Jackal, many of the mongooses, genets and otters) (see du Plessis 2013).
