habitat_narrative

Terrestrial

Buffalo occupy a broad range of habitats, including forest (to elevations well over 4,000 m asl), moist lowland rainforests, coastal savannahs, montane grasslands, semi-arid bushland, Acacia woodland, and Miombo Brachystegia woodland. They do not inhabit deserts and sub-deserts, for example the Namib and the Saharan/Sahelian transition zone (Prins & Sinclair 2013). Funston et al. (1994) found that the four factors that appeared to influence habitat selection of buffalo were forage availability, cover for protection against predators, proximity to water and the mobility of the herd. They drink water regularly and usually graze or take shelter in thick riverine vegetation (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). They require abundant grass, shade and water, and the absence of these requirements probably prevented their occupation of the Karoo or open grassland plains of the Highveld. Although abundant grass is required, large open floodplains or grasslands are avoided as they require the shade of trees to rest under during the hottest hours of the day. The digestive system of the buffalo is typical of bulk and roughage grazers, and is not suitable for a diet exclusively of browse material (Hofmann 1989), but they do occasionally take browse (Novellie et al. 1991; Venter & Watson 2008). They are prone to be selective of grass species and grass parts (Sinclair 1974; Hunter 1996; Prins 1996).

Buffalo are gregarious and occur in mixed herds numbering up to 3,000 individuals. In the KNP, herd numbers average 300–500 individuals (Whyte 2004) and larger herds are often associated with a higher proportion of juveniles (Tambling et al. 2013). Herds often inhabit home ranges that overlap very little with neighbouring herds and these home ranges vary in size, depending on season and the amount of available water and forage. Old and young bulls will leave the herd and form smaller bachelor herds that tend to occupy considerably smaller ranges than the larger female-dominated herds. These smaller bachelor herds are prone to greater levels of predation as they have smaller average group sizes and tend to inhabit riskier environments (Tambling et al. 2013). Herds will normally move towards water early in the morning and again early in the evening. They are most active while feeding early in the morning and late afternoon and are characterised by considerable feeding bouts at night. Buffalo employ this activity pattern both in the presence and absence of predators; however, under high predation risk, buffalo may increase midday movement with a corresponding decrease in early morning movement (Tambling et al. 2015).

In the KNP, Pienaar (1969) recorded that calves are typically born between January and April, with a peak in January/February, coinciding with a peak in grass growth and protein content (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Ovulation in females and spermatogenesis in males was found to commence after about 3.2 years (Sinclair 1977; Taylor 1985), and 2.5 years of age, respectively (Taylor 1985). Generally, females may give birth to their first calf when they are 4–5 years old (Carmichael et al. 1977; Taylor 1985; Mizutani 1987). Although males may reach sexual maturity between the ages of 3.5 and 5.5 years, dominant bulls typically prevent younger bulls from breeding until they are 7–8 years old (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Over an age of 10 years, males are no longer found in breeding herds (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). A single calf is born, weighing approximately 31.1 kg for males, and 31.2 kg for females, following a mean gestation period of 340 days (Vidler et al. 1963). Calves suckle for about 9 months, and may remain with its mother for up to two years (Skinner & Chimimba 2005)

Ecosystem and cultural services: Buffalo, as bulk grazers, are important ecosystem engineers who facilitate the presence of more selective, smaller grazers (Venter et al. 2014). They are an important food source for the larger predators like African Lion (Panthera leo) (Hayward & Kerley 2005). Buffalo and lions (which prey on them) are both part of the “Big Five”, and are important species for tourism in Africa (Okello et al. 2008). As part of the “Big Five”, they are sought after as hunting trophies. The tourism and hunting industries are of major socio-economic importance in South Africa.