habitat_narrative
Terrestrial
Although the Spotted Hyaena is predominantly a savannah species, it has been found to occur in most habitat types including semi-desert, open woodland and dense dry woodlands (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). In many parts of its range, it occurs in close association with human habitation.Population densities based on systematic censuses vary substantially, from 0.006â1.7 individual(s) / km² across Africa (Frank et al. 1995; Hofer & Mills 1998a, 1998b). Spotted Hyaenas are slow breeders that repopulate areas gradually (Henschel 1986), which was demonstrated when hyaenas were culled from certain areas in Kruger National Park (KNP) (Smuts 1979). Spotted Hyaenas societies are more complex than other carnivore species. They are social animals which live in multi-generational social groups called clans which can vary in size. In the Serengeti, clan sizes can be as large as 47 individuals (Skinner & Chimimba 2005); while in the nearby Masai Mara, clan sizes could reach as high as 79 (Watts & Holekamp 2009). Clan sizes range from 9 to 18 individuals in the lowveld of Limpopo and Mpumalanga (Henschel 1986; Henschel & Skinner 1987), and in KNP densities can be 0.02â0.2 individual / km² (Mills et al. 2001). In KwaZulu-Natal, clan sizes are c. 14, in HiP with densities of 0.36 individuals / km² (Whateley 1981); and in Mkhuze, clan sizes are 6â7, and densities are at 0.13 individual / km² (Skinner et al. 1992). In arid areas, such as Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP), the mean clan sizes are 8 (range 3â12), and densities lower at 0.9 individual / 100 km² (Mills 1984a, 1990). Captureârecapture surveys have estimated a density of 8.8 hyaenas / 100 km2 in Phinda Private Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province (2014 survey; A. Hunnnicutt unpubl. data) and 6.7 hyaenas / 100 km2 in Mkhuze Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province (A. Hunnicutt unpubl. data; 2015 survey). The variation in clan sizes could reflect the variation in the prevailing ecological conditions, particularly with respect to Lion populations and prey densities. Spotted Hyaena clans are composed of multiple adult females, their immature offspring, and immigrant males (Watts & Holekamp 2009). The clan is led by a dominant female called the matriarch and generally in the clan, females dominate even the males (Frank 1986b; Watts & Holekamp 2009). Sexual dimorphism is evident as females are larger and heavier than males and even have the resemblance of male external genitalia. Generally, females will remain with their natal clan while most males will emigrate from their natal clans after they become reproductively mature, usually occurring from 2â5 years of age (Holekamp et al. 2012). The mating system is highly polygynous and only the behaviourally dominant male mates, though all other resident males regularly court females (Frank 1986b). The species is a non-seasonal breeder but exhibits a peak in reproduction in the late summer (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Females generally have litters of one or two cubs (Holekamp et al. 2012). Cubs remain in the clanâs den for 9â14 months and are generally weaned when they are 12â18 months, later than most other carnivores (Holekamp et al. 2012).
While it was previously thought that Spotted Hyaenas were typically scavengers, studies show that they are actually efficient and active predators (Hayward 2006). A meta-analysis study by Hayward (2006) on the dietary preferences of the Spotted Hyaena found that the species prefer prey species within a body mass range of 56â182 kg â similar to that of Lions â revealing a 69% overlap in preferred prey. Results from Hayward (2006) illustrate the flexible and unselective nature of Spotted Hyaena predation; this characteristic is likely the reason for the speciesâ success, despite a large degree of overlap with Lions. Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), Red Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama), Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) are common prey items (Hayward 2006). In the woodlands of the KNP, about half their diet is obtained from kills they make (Mills & Biggs 1993), while elsewhere, in KTP for example, over 60% their diet is comprised of their own kills, of which this comprises 73% of the meat eaten (Mills 1984b). Spotted Hyaenas do also frequently steal kills from other carnivores such as Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) (Gorman et al. 1998), Cheetah and Brown Hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea) (Mills 1990), as well as Leopards (Panthera pardus) (Mills & Biggs 1993), and thus influence their persistence.
Ecosystem and cultural services: Spotted Hyaenas have been referred to as keystone predators (Holekamp 2006; Trinkel 2009). As Spotted Hyaenas are typically cursorial predators, they tend to select prey that are weak, injured or sick. This supposedly increases the health of prey populations in an ecosystem. Generally, Spotted Hyaenas can survive in ecosystems in which most larger predators cannot; if Spotted Hyaenas were to disappear from an area, it indicates that a system has been severely degraded (Holekamp 2006; Trinkel 2009).
They minimise the spread of disease by devouring carcasses quickly (sensu Butler & du Toit 2002; Ogada et al. 2012), and they have been said to be important in reducing the prevalence of anthrax in KNP to which they are apparently not susceptible (Pienaar 1969).
They feature extensively in African folklore, as they are associated with witchcraft, and are often viewed as the preferred mode of transport for witches. They are also thought to be shape shifters, to rob graves for bodies, and steal livestock. Folklore has ascribed them to be âhermaphroditicâ since the time of Aristotle, due to the masculanised genitalia in the females (Neaves et al. 1980; van Jaarsveld & Skinner 1987; Frank 1996), which is a by-product of high levels of circulating testosterone (Racey & Skinner 1979; van Jaarsveld & Skinner 1991), needed to socially dominate other clan members (Mills 1990; Frank 1996).
The whooping call of this species is distinctive (Skinner & Chimimba 2005), and a depiction of a classic African evening, and its haunting call is appealing to visitors in parks and game reserves.
