Rationale (Changed due to Genuine (recent))

The regional population of Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos is expected to undergo a population size reduction of greater than 50% within the next three generations (45 years), based on potential levels of exploitation. A recent escalation of large-scale poisoning incidents in the southern African range of the species, motivated by the masking of poaching operations and harvesting for the traditional health industry, is of high concern. In addition the species qualifies as regionally Endangered due to the small regional population (less than 2 500 mature individuals), with at least 95% of mature individuals belonging to a single sub-population.

Distribution

The Lappet-faced Vulture occurs in the northern regions of South Africa and in eastern Swaziland (Mundy 1997). The current range is much reduced from earlier times (Boshoff et al. 1983, Tarboton and Allan 1984, Mundy 1997, Monadjem 2003, Monadjem et al. 2003), and it has disappeared as a breeding species from Western Cape, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape south of the Orange River (Boshoff et al. 1983, Anderson and Maritz 1997). The species bred in the Free State in historical times but is now only an occasional non-breeding visitor there (Colahan and Esterhuizen 1997, Colahan 2004), as it is in Gauteng (Whittington-Jones 2004), although it likely bred there ancestrally. There is no evidence that it ever bred in Lesotho (Bonde 1993). The overall distribution in the region, however, appears similar between the two atlas projects. As with the White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus, however, SABAP2 shows records from further west in KwaZulu-Natal than did SABAP1.

Habitat View more ecological information

Population

The global population is estimated at 5 700 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2014). In the region covered by the former Transvaal, the Lappet-faced Vulture appeared to be restricted as a breeding species to the eastern Lowveld conservation areas, mainly in the Kruger National Park, where the population was estimated as unlikely to exceed 40 pairs in the late 1970s (Tarboton and Allan 1984). One additional breeding pair, however, was known from the Limpopo Valley in the north-west of that erstwhile province (Tarboton and Allan 1984). During annual surveys covering the period 1982-1993 up to 49 active nests (in 1990) were recorded, and up to 100 pairs estimated, in Kruger National Park, with a concentration in the northern third of the park (Herholdt et al. 1997). A recent (2011) estimate for Kruger National Park is 78 (95% CI ±18) pairs, with an indication, contra to Herholdt et al. (1997), of a concentration in the southern third of the reserve.

After the mid-1990s, breeding was recorded in the Pilanesberg National Park and Lichtenberg and Madikwe nature reserves (Verdoorn et al. 1997, Verdoorn 2004). All three of these protected areas occur in the region formerly covered by the Transvaal, although they now lie in North West province. Breeding has also been recorded further west from Molopo Nature Reserve in North West (Verdoorn 2004). The species seemed to increase in North West Province in the 15 years prior to 2004 (Verdoorn et al. 1997, Verdoorn 2004). There are also regular reports of adult and immature Lappet-faced vultures seen in the Magaliesberg (K Wolter pers. comm) which covers both Gauteng and North West provinces.

In Northern Cape, the population in the late 1990s was estimated at maximum 45 pairs, with 33 pairs known, including at least two pairs (and possibly up to eight) in the South African portion of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, 30 pairs in the Kalahari outside the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and one pair at Rooipoort near Kimberley (Anderson and Maritz 1997). Indeed, Anderson and Maritz (1997) suggested that the number of breeding pairs in Northern Cape may have increased in recent times due to improved land-owner attitudes. In the mid-2000s, this increase was considered ongoing; the estimated total population was revised upwards to possibly as high as 50 pairs (Anderson 2004).

In KwaZulu-Natal, 15 breeding pairs occurred in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HIP) in 1972 and 1973 (Hitchins 1980). This number had apparently remained constant since 1970 and 12 of these breeding pairs have been known since 1961. A total of 14 pairs were present in 1989 (Howells et al. 2011). A single pair of breeding Lappet-faced Vultures established in Ithala Game Reserve in 2005 (Rushworth et al. 2007). The total KwaZulu-Natal population was estimated at 25 pairs in the mid-1990s (Piper and Johnson 1997) and up to 20 pairs (all in protected areas) in 2004 (Rushworth and Piper 2004). The population was believed to be decreasing in the mid-2000s (Rushworth and Piper 2004). In 2007, the KwaZulu-Natal population was estimated at nine pairs, six in HIP, one in Mkuze Game Reserve, one in Pongolo Nature Reserve and one in Ithala (McKean et al. 2013). In 2011, 12 pairs were counted in HIP, two pairs in Mkuze Game Reserve, two pairs in Pongolo Nature Reserve and one pair in Pongola Private Game Reserve (Howells et al. 2011).

The Swaziland breeding population was estimated at three breeding pairs in the mid-1990s (Parker 1997). This situation remained unchanged in 2002 with the only three Swaziland breeding pairs occurring in the Hlane-Mlawula reserve complex (Monadjem et al. 2003, Monadjem 2004, Monadjem and Garcelon 2005).

Uneven coverage and the outdated nature of some estimates make an accurate current estimate of the total breeding population for the region uncertain. The best estimate would be a maximum of about 169 breeding pairs (i.e. 338 mature individuals), with 78 pairs in Kruger National Park, 50 in Northern Cape, 18 in KwaZulu-Natal, and three in Swaziland, in addition to a maximum of perhaps a further 20 pairs outside these areas, i.e. Lowveld conservation areas adjacent to Kruger National Park, Limpopo Valley and North West. This is similar to the 150-200 pairs estimated by Anderson (2000). Confidence in the regional population estimate is medium.

Population trend

The global population is suspected to be declining at a moderately rapid rate, based on anecdotal information on regional declines, and extirpation in some parts of its range (BirdLife International 2014). As documented above, the Lappet-faced Vulture has disappeared entirely as a breeding species over large parts of the region since historical times. Its remaining primary strongholds are in Kruger National Park (and Adjacent Private Nature Reserves), parts of Northern Cape, and, to a lesser extent, the Swaziland Lowveld and Zululand in northern KwaZulu-Natal. These strongholds are all associated with formally protected areas, with the notable exception of sparsely populated parts of Northern Cape, where it breeds fairly widely on private ranches. This large-scale historical reduction, however, seems to have stabilised in modern times and the size of the breeding population appears to have remained largely unchanged since the late 1970s at least. Indeed, there are indications of local increases in breeding pairs in some parts of the range, e.g. on private land in Northern Cape, apparently in protected areas in North West Province, and at Ithala Nature Reserve in KwaZulu-Natal. The regional population trend is stable. Confidence in this regional trend estimate is high.

Threats

The main threats faced by the Lappet-faced Vulture are common to most of the other vulture species in southern Africa, primarily revolving around contamination of their food supply, negative interactions with humans and human infrastructure, and demand for their use in the traditional health industry. Threats reducing adult survival, relevant to many of the dangers discussed below, are of particular concern, as the population stability of this vulture, which evidences a naturally low reproductive rate, likely depends on high adult survival rates, as with other vultures.

Poisoning has proved as detrimental to this vulture as to others in the region and there are many confirmed incidents, including with substances such as strychnine, carbaryl/Gamma BHC (‘Blue-Death') and methamidophos (organophosphate), in the region (van Jaarsveld 1987, Day 1988, Mundy et al. 1992, Snyman 2000). A frightening recent development in southern Africa is the mass poisoning of vultures in the large protected area strongholds in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to help mask poaching activities, although the traditional health industry has also been implicated in at least some of these instances (Hancock 2009, 2012, Groom et al. 2013, Bradley and Maude 2014). Lappet-faced Vultures, perhaps particularly young birds, wander widely and this means that birds originating from the region could easily succumb to such incidents in the neighbouring states. The species has also been known to succumb to poison collars laced with carbofuran (Verdoorn 1999). The toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, so lethal to Gyps vultures, to Lappet-faced Vultures is unknown.

Lappet-faced Vultures are also victims of electrocution on smaller pylons (van Rooyen 2000, Kruger et al. 2004) as well as collisions while in flight with overhead transmission lines (van Rooyen 2000).

Like other vulture species, the Lappet-faced Vulture is highly sought-after in the traditional medicine trade and this comprises a further major threat to the species, with birds killed using poisons and other means of hunting to satisfy this demand (Mander et al. 2007, Bamford et al. 2009, McKean et al. 2013).

The species occasionally drowns in circular concrete farm reservoirs, particularly in the dry western parts of the region (Knight 1987, Anderson et al. 1999, Herholdt and Anderson 2006) but not to same extent as the Gyps vultures. It has been suggested that poisoned vultures may be particularly prone to such drowning, as one symptom of the poisoning may be extreme thirst, and this potential association should be investigated further. The species also occasionally falls prey to gin-traps (Anderson 2000).

Conservation

Underway

A global species action plan for the Lappet-faced Vulture has been compiled (Shimelis et al. 2005). This species also falls under the ambit of the various conservation NGOs active in vulture conservation including the Bird of Prey and Wildlife and Energy programmes of the Endangered Wildlife Trust, VulPro and the IUCN Vulture Specialist Group. Education initiatives aimed at the farming community in Northern Cape has led to improved attitudes from this quarter and an increase in the number of breeding pairs in this area (Anderson and Maritz 1997).

Pylons in Northern Cape have been modified to reduce the risk of electrocution to this, and other vultures (Northern Cape Raptor Conservation Forum 2006). Collisions can be mitigated for by line-marking and judicious routing of lines, although the value of the former remains largely untested and may be inherently limited in its effectiveness related to the biological attributes of flying vultures (Jenkins et al. 2010, Martin 2011, Martin et al. 2012). A detailed assessment of the use of vultures in traditional medicine in South Africa has recently been undertaken (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013). The danger posed by drowning in reservoirs is relatively easily ameliorated by placing objects such as logs into such structures, carefully regulating their water-levels, completely covering them or providing alternative, more suitable, drinking structures to avoid these incidents (Anderson et al. 1997, 1999). Lappet-faced Vultures benefit from supplementary feeding sites (‘vulture restaurants') in the same way as other vulture species (Butchart 1988, Piper 2004a,b, Anderson and Anthony 2006).

Proposed

The key conservation measures required are similar to those needed for other vulture species in the region. These call for a focus primarily on the major threats stemming from poisoning, energy-related infrastructure, the traditional health industry, potential food shortages, drowning and negative perceptions and ignorance. Conservation efforts targeted primarily at the more abundant and widespread Cape and White-backed vultures would likely also benefit the rarer Lappet-faced Vulture. The scourge of poisoning needs to be combatted by the rigorous investigation and prosecution of all such instances, as well as the maintenance of ongoing and high-profile education and publicity campaigns emphasising the causes and negative consequences of such incidents. The legal penalties need to be severe enough to act as material deterrents. The recent trend of the mass poisoning of vultures in conservation areas to mask poaching activities and for the traditional health industry requires particular ameliorative action. A move to lead-free ammunition should be considered where relevant. Additional effort is required to reduce electrocutions and collisions of Lappet-faced Vultures related to power-line infrastructure. Existing pylons and overhead lines need to be replaced or retro-fitted, on a carefully prioritised basis, and new infrastructure needs to designed and routed, to minimise the risks from electrocution and collisions.

Pertinent to the use of Lappet-faced Vultures in the traditional health industry, an intervention strategy is required that addresses the following primary areas of action: a) reduce consumption and demand for vultures through an awareness-building campaign targeting public consumers and current roleplayers; b) change/create policy to improve regulation of the vulture trade; c) improve policing and enforcement for better regulation of the trade; d) improve understanding of the trade to allow more focused interventions, including more research and monitoring. McKean and Rushworth (2008) provide supplementary guidelines for interventions aimed at addressing the threat to vultures from traditional use. Firm steps must be maintained to confirm that the food provided at supplementary feeding sites is free from any harmful toxins. Relevant stakeholders need to be continually reminded of the threat to Lappet-faced Vultures posed by drowning the farm reservoirs. Similar ongoing action is required to control the dangers from human disturbance at breeding sites on private land.

Research

* Regular and accurate censuses are a high priority in order to monitor the population size and stability on an ongoing basis. This is likely best achieved using aerial censuses using fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters (Monadjem and Garcelon 2005, Howells et al. 2011, Murn et al. 2013). Such counts are already being undertaken on an annual basis in the KwaZulu-Natal protected areas where this species occurs (Howells et al. 2011).

* Satellite and GSM tracking can help in determining movements and mortality factors (Wolter 2006, Bartels et al. 2007, Phipps et al. 2013) and should be further pursued with this species. Ringing and patagial tagging (Botha 2007, Monadjem et al. 2012) can also provide information but is likely less cost effective in this regard.

* More research is required on the ongoing impact of electrical infrastructure on Lappet-faced Vulture populations in terms of electrocutions and collisions, and on the efficacy of mitigation measures.

* The foraging patterns and food, coupled with the actual and potential value of supplementary feeding schemes, are worthy of investigation linked to tracking studies.

* Research into use of this species in traditional medicine is required (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013).

* The issue of potential lead poisoning through bullets lodged in carcasses, especially at supplementary feeding sites, requires urgent investigation.

* The potential toxicity of non-steriodal anti-inflammatory drugs to this species should be investigated.