Rationale (Changed due to Genuine (recent))

The regional population of the iconic African Penguin Spheniscus demersus has fallen dramatically, to the extent that it now satisfies the population size reduction criterion of A2 for regionally Endangered, with a reduction of greater than 50% over a three generation period, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased or may not be understood or may not be reversible). In addition, it is suspected that this decline will continue into the future satisfying criteria A3 and A4.

Distribution

African Penguins are near-endemic to the region, occurring in breeding colonies from Hollam's Bird Island in Namibia to Bird Island (Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape) in South Africa (Crawford et al. 2011). Within the region, they breed at 15 islands and two mainland sites. Breeding ceased at Bird Island in Lambert's Bay in 2006 (Crawford et al. 2008b). Penguins attempted to breed at De Hoop Nature Reserve, Western Cape, from 2003 to 2005, but failed owing to high levels of mammalian predation (Crawford et al. 2011). Outside of the breeding season, the species ranges coastally between 18°S in Namibia and 29°S in KwaZulu-Natal. There have been sightings as far north as Sette Cama, Gabon and the Limpopo River mouth, Mozambique (Crawford and Whittington 2005).

Habitat View more ecological information

Population

The global population was estimated at 52 000 individuals or 26 000 pairs in 2009, which included Namibian birds (Crawford et al. 2011). The regional population is approximately 40 000 mature individuals (Crawford et al. 2012). The confidence in this estimate is high.

Population trend

In Western Cape, the population increased during the first few years of this century to 34 749 pairs and then decreased to 11 000 pairs in 2009 (Crawford et al. 2011) and fell again to 8 780 pairs in 2011 (Crawford et al. 2012). In Eastern Cape, the numbers of breeding pairs halved from an average of 21 175 from 1993-2001 to an average of 10 057 over 1993-2010 (Crawford et al. 2011). This population increased slightly to 11 300 in 2011 (Crawford et al. 2011). The regional population decreased from 56 000 pairs in 2001 to 21 000 pairs in 2009 (Crawford et al. 2011) and decreased further to just over 20 000 in 2011 (Crawford et al. 2012). The confidence in this regional trend estimate is high. The rate of decrease of the population has increased rapidly over the past 10 years (approximately 6.4% per year). If the population continues to decrease at the same rate, this species will become a candidate for uplisting to Critically Endangered in the near future.

Threats

The species is subject to a broad array of threats across its range. The current population decline has been attributed primarily to a lack of food. There is increasing evidence that fish availability during different times of year affects breeding success and adult survival (Crawford et al. 2011). A shift in distribution of Sardine Sardinops sagax and Anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus stocks from the West Coast eastwards to the southern Western Cape, away from the major penguin colonies, is the probable cause of fish shortages (Roy et al. 2007). Competition for these stocks from the commercial purse-seine fishery has also been implicated (Coetzee et al. 2008). Birds are threatened when at sea from oil spills, which can cause significant mortality of both oiled birds and abandoned chicks and eggs (Adams 1994, Crawford et al. 2000). Potential for catastrophic large-scale oil spills is likely to increase, given further developments planned along the coast. Chronic oiling from leaking wrecks, washing of ship's tanks and other sources is also a threat (Wolfaardt et al. 2009). Cape Fur Seal Arctocephalus pusillus predation is a major cause of mortality at some colonies, especially Dyer Island (Kirkman 2009). Seals have also displaced penguins from some breeding sites (Kirkman 2009). Other lesser threats are more specific to certain colonies. Disturbance and trampling of nests by tourists in the area surrounding the Boulders Beach colony on the Cape Peninsula was a problem, although this is being addressed by authorities. Collision with vehicles is a problem at both Robben Island and Boulders Beach (du Toit et al. 2003). Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus predation occurs in most colonies and can reduce breeding success by half (du Toit et al. 2003, Pichegru 2013). The impacts of gull predation will likely increase because the gull population around the South African coast has also increased in recent years (Crawford et al. 2012). Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus predation may be more of a problem at Dassen and Jutten islands than previously realised. There was certainly some evidence of this early in 2012 at Jutten Island (BM Dyer pers. comm.). Although the removal of guano from breeding islands has stopped, the lack of guano in which to create burrows continues to have an effect: at some colonies penguins nest on the surface, exposing their eggs and chicks to temperature extremes and predation (du Toit et al. 2003, Pichegru 2013).

Conservation

Underway

A Biodiversity Management Plan (BMP) for the African Penguin was initiated in November 2010 by CapeNature and the Department of Environmental Affairs. It outlines the major threats and specifies what actions need to be taken to mitigate these threats (Waller 2011). Oiled penguins are rehabilitated and released successfully by various rehabilitation centres, including the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds, the South African Marine Rehabilitation and Education Centre, and Penguins Eastern Cape. There is little difference in the survival rates of oiled birds that have been rehabilitated and unoiled birds (Underhill et al. 1999), but the long-term breeding success may be diminished for oiled birds (Wolfaardt et al. 2009).

Monitoring of population size and breeding success is conducted at most breeding colonies by the Department of Environmental Affairs, CapeNature, Robben Island Museums, Percy FitzPatrick Institute and Animal Demography Unit. Fibreglass nest boxes have been provided at colonies affected by the lack of guano, and were thought to improve breeding success (Kemper et al. 2007). However, these boxes can overheat and reduce hatching success by at least one third compared to natural burrows (Pichegru et al. 2012). Wooden frames or concrete burrows can increase breeding success compared to open nests (Pichegru et al. 2012).

Feral cats, which can have significant impacts on chicks in particular, have been almost entirely eliminated from Robben Island. Kelp Gull numbers are controlled by SANParks at Bird Island. Measures have been put in place by CapeNature to deal with Kelp Gull numbers and Cape Fur Seal predation at Dyer Island. Cape Fur Seals, implicated in penguin predation, are controlled at Dyer Island, but not at other islands where seal predation is a problem, such as Dassen and Robben islands and islands in Saldanha Bay.

All but two colonies are formally protected as provincial nature reserves, national parks or cultural heritage sites and the collection of penguin eggs and guano is prohibited. The African Penguin is listed nationally on the Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) Regulations and the Western Cape Provincial Ordinance. Internationally, this species is listed on CITES Appendix II and Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Appendix II).

Proposed

As outlined above, a number of conservation and monitoring initiatives are already in place to conserve this iconic near-endemic species. Continuous monitoring of the regional and global population is imperative, taking into account recommendations that will emanate from the Biodiversity Management Plan.

The possibility of exclusion of purse-seine fishing around breeding colonies should be investigated as this is deemed to pose a threat to penguins in terms of competition for food. Prevention of oil pollution by tighter control over the cleaning of ships' tanks and at oil offloading terminals in Cape Town, Saldanha and possibly Coega should be exercised.

Predation by gulls and seals should be monitored at all penguin colonies, and mitigation measures should be implemented where required. In the case of seals, removal of a small number of individuals seen to be predating on seabirds is a solution. Growing numbers of seals also compete with penguins and other seabirds for food and space, and a solution to this problem should be sought.

Penguin breeding habitat should be improved and increased, through research into suitability of artificial nesting shelters, and ways of excluding predators. It is recommended that tighter control of research permits be maintained to limit disturbance at penguin colonies, particularly those at offshore islands.

A different suite of challenges come into play where penguins come into regular contact with humans, such as at the Boulders and Stony Point colonies. In such locations novel measures have been put into place to safeguard penguins, e.g. provision of shelter and restricting human access to boardwalks. Efforts should be made to maintain and upgrade such measures. Mainland colonies provide valuable opportunities for raising awareness, promoting sustainable ecotourism and raising funds for penguin conservation.

Research

Existing and needed research includes:

* An experiment to investigate the benefits of marine no-take zones around breeding colonies is being conducted (Pichegru et al. 2010) by the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and various stakeholders (Percy Fitzpatrick Institute of African Ornithology, BirdLife South Africa, Animal Demography Unit). This is in conjunction with small-scale monitoring of fish abundance and movements by the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestries and Percy Fitzpatrick Institute.

* Surveys at all colonies are required to monitor the prevalence of diseases.

* Establishment of a trial colony in areas close to zones of high fish abundance is an avenue worth exploring.

* A study should be conducted on the effects of disturbance by fishing vessels at sea.

* Investigation of where adult penguins forage outside the breeding season and whether this overlaps with commercial fishing grounds is important.

* An investigation of juvenile penguins' patterns of movement after fledging is important.