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The regional population of Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus is estimated to number less than 250 mature individuals with an estimated continuing decline of at least 25% within one generation, satisfying the criterion C1 for Critically Endangered.
The Hooded Vulture now occurs regularly only in the north-eastern regions of South Africa, where it is confined to the conservation areas in the Lowveld of Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces (Mundy 1997). It is only an occasional vagrant to other parts of the region, e.g. eastern Swaziland (Monadjem 2004) and the Zululand region of KwaZulu-Natal Province (Rushworth and Piper 2004). There is a recent record of a vagrant bird in the Eastern Cape Province (Boshoff 2008). Its distribution in South Africa is known to be much reduced from earlier times (Boshoff et al. 1983, Tarboton and Allan 1984, Mundy 1997). The restricted distribution in the region, however, appears similar between the SABAP1 and SABAP2.
The current global population is estimated at a maximum of 197 000 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2014). The breeding range of the Hooded Vulture in the region probably extended more widely in the past but there is a lack of historical breeding records to directly confirm this (Boshoff et al. 1983, Tarboton and Allan 1984) and it is now restricted as a breeding species to the Kruger National Park and Adjacent Private Nature Reserves (Tarboton and Allan 1984, Mundy 1997a, Roche 2006). The population in this area was estimated at less than 50 pairs in the late 1970s (Tarboton and Allan 1984), although this was considered likely an underestimate by Benson (1997). The figure was revised to 50-100 pairs in the late 1990s (Barnes and Tarboton 1998). Kemp et al. (2001) estimated at least 64 breeding adults in the Kruger National Park. Nests of this vulture in southern Africa, unlike other large vulture species, are typically hidden under the canopies of well-foliaged trees (Mundy et al. 1992) and are thus difficult to find and count, rendering a survey of breeding pairs challenging. The total regional population estimate therefore remains essentially unchanged from the previous assessment (Anderson 2000), i.e. 50-100 breeding pairs (i.e. 100-200 mature individuals). Confidence in this regional population estimate is high.
The global population is believed to have undergone a large-scale, and in some cases apparently rapid, decrease across its broad African range over the past 40-50 years and in some areas in less than 20 years (Ogada and Buij 2011). As discussed above, the Hooded Vulture may have disappeared entirely as a breeding species over parts of the region since historical times, e.g. the central parts of the former Transvaal Province (Tarboton and Allan 1984), but direct historical evidence of this is even less available than in the Lappet-faced and White-headed vultures. As with those two species though, any large-scale historical reduction seems to have stabilised in modern times and the breeding range, now restricted entirely to Kruger National Park and Adjacent Private Nature Reserves, appears to have remained unchanged since the 1970s at least. Its presence in the region as a breeding bird therefore is entirely reliant on these protected areas. The regional population is stable. Confidence in this regional population trend is high.
As with the White-headed Vulture, the fact that the Hooded Vulture essentially disappeared unheralded from most of their breeding range outside large protected areas means that knowledge of the dangers underpinning this decrease in the region are extremely poorly documented. The Hooded Vulture is certainly vulnerable to the same threats faced by other vultures, especially contamination of its food supply, negative interactions with humans and human infrastructure, and demand for its use in the traditional health industry.
Poisoning is a confirmed threat in the region (Verdoorn 1997, Snyman 2004, Botha 2007), backed up by further such incidents elsewhere in southern Africa (Mundy 1980, Mundy et al. 1992, Hancock 2009, Bradley and Maude 2014). A frightening recent development in southern Africa is the mass poisoning of vultures in the large protected area strongholds in Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to help conceal poaching activities, although the traditional health industry has also been implicated in at least some of these instances (Hancock 2009, Groom et al. 2013, Bradley and Maude 2014). It is likely that in some cases of poisoning, White-backed Vultures G. africanus may be the primary targets. In two cases, the poisons used were an organophosphate and carbofuran respectively.
White-headed Vultures, perhaps particularly young birds, likely wander widely and this means that birds originating from the region could easily succumb to such incidents in the neighbouring states. Research on the traditional health trade in South Africa confirms the demand for this species from that quarter (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013).
Several conservation NGOs active in vulture conservation including the Bird of Prey and Wildlife and Energy programmes of the Endangered Wildlife Trust, VulPro and the IUCN Vulture Specialist Group have undertaken conservation work related to this species. In the region, however, the species is restricted to formally protected areas and the future survival of the Hooded Vulture, as with the White-headed Vulture, in these areas is apparently wholly reliant on the security and appropriate management of these reserves.
A detailed assessment of the use of vultures, including this species, in traditional medicine in South Africa has recently been undertaken (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013). Hooded Vultures possibly benefit from supplementary feeding sites (‘vulture restaurants') in the same way as other species (Butchart 1988, Piper 2004a,b) although their restriction to conservation areas may render these initiatives less relevant for this vulture species in the region.
The key conservation measures required are similar to those needed for other vulture species in the region but, like in the case of the White-headed Vulture, have somewhat limited applicability given the essential restriction of the species to formally protected areas. One danger is that conservation research and management actions in these reserves typically do not take bird species into account, despite the importance of these localities to bird conservation, which can result in a lack of the appropriate conservation focus on key bird species such as the Hooded Vulture. Conservation efforts targeted primarily at the more abundant and widespread Cape and White-backed vultures would likely also benefit the rarer Hooded Vulture.
Poisoning incidents need to be drastically reduced through rigorous investigation and prosecution of all such instances, as well as the maintenance of ongoing and high-profile education and publicity campaigns emphasising the causes and negative consequences of such incidents. The legal penalties need to be severe enough to act as material deterrents. The recent trend of the mass poisoning of vultures in conservation areas to mask poaching activities and for the traditional health industry requires particular ameliorative action. A move to lead-free ammunition should be considered where relevant.
Pertinent to the use of Hooded Vultures in the traditional health industry, an intervention strategy is required that addresses the following primary areas of action: a) reduce consumption/demand for vultures through an awareness-building campaign targeting public consumers and current roleplayers; b) change/create policy to improve regulation of the vulture trade; c) improve policing and enforcement for better regulation of the trade; d) improve understanding of the trade to allow more focused interventions, including more research and monitoring (Mander et al. 2007 McKean et al. 2013). Firm steps must be maintained to confirm that the food provided at supplementary feeding sites is free from any toxins harmful to the birds.
* Censuses are a high priority in order to monitor the population size and stability on an ongoing basis. The nests of this species are usually well hidden, unfortunately rendering aerially censusing inappropriate for this species.
* Satellite and GSM tracking can be invaluable in determining movements and mortality factors (Phipps et al. 2013, Bradley and Maude 2014) and should be expanded to this species. Ringing and patagial tagging (Botha 2007, Monadjem et al. 2012) can also provide information but is likely less cost effective in this regard.
* The foraging habits and diet of this species are worthy of deeper investigation and proper quantification.
* Ongoing research is required relevant to the exploitation of this species in the traditional health industry (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013).
* The issue of potential lead poisoning through bullets, and fragments of bullets, lodged in carcasses available to Hooded Vultures, especially at supplementary feeding sites, requires urgent investigation.