Rationale (Changed due to Application of criteria)

The regional population of White-headed Vulture Aegypius occipitalis is estimated to number less than 250 mature individuals with an estimated continuing decline of at least 25% within one generation, satisfying the criterion C1 for regionally Critically Endangered. A recent apparent escalation of large-scale poisoning incidents throughout the broader southern African range of the species, motivated by the masking of poaching operations, is the main driver.

Distribution

The White-headed Vulture is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa with a local population on the Dahlak Archipelago in the Red Sea off Eritrea. Within the region, it occurs in the northern regions of South Africa and in eastern Swaziland (Mundy 1997) with its distribution known to be much reduced from earlier times (Tarboton and Allan 1984, Anderson and Maritz 1997, Mundy 1997, Monadjem et al. 2003, Monadjem and Garcelon 2005). The SABAP2 map suggests that the species is now largely confined to the conservation areas of the Lowveld of Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, and similarly protected areas in the Zululand region of KwaZulu-Natal and the Swaziland Lowveld. Records from other areas are now pitifully few with records in the Northern Cape and North West provinces along the Botswana border. Particularly striking is the paucity of SABAP2 records from the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in Northern Cape Province, and the complete absence of SABAP2 records from north-west Limpopo Province, compared with SABAP1.

Habitat View more ecological information

Population

The global population of the White-headed Vulture is estimated at 7 000-12 500 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2014). In the region covered by the former Transvaal province of South Africa, the White-headed Vulture, in the late 1970s, was restricted as a breeding species to the eastern Lowveld conservation areas, where the population was estimated at c. 105 pairs (Tarboton and Allan 1984). The vast majority of breeding pairs (92 pairs; 88%) was estimated to occur in the Kruger National Park. Benson (1997) considered this estimate too high and suggested a total population in the eastern Lowveld conservation areas of less than 50 pairs. During annual surveys covering the period 1982-1993 up to 30 breeding pairs (in 1993) were recorded in the Kruger National Park (Herholdt et al. 1997) with a more recent (2011) estimate for the Kruger National Park providing 60 pairs (95% CI ±13) (Murn et al. 2013).

In KwaZulu-Natal, nine breeding pairs occurred in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park in 1972 and 1973 respectively (Hitchins 1980). This number had apparently remained constant since 1970 and some of these pairs were known as early as 1962. A total of eight pairs were present in 1989 (Howells et al. 2011). The total KwaZulu-Natal population was estimated at 15 pairs in the mid-1990s (Piper and Johnson 1997) and 12-15 pairs (all in protected areas) in 2004 (Rushworth and Piper 2004). The population was believed to be decreasing in the mid-2000s (Rushworth and Piper 2004). In 2007, the KZN population was estimated at six pairs, five in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park and one in Pongolo Nature Reserve (McKean et al. 2013). In 2011, four pairs were counted in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, one pair in Pongolo Nature Reserve and one pair in Magudu South private game reserve (Howells et al. 2011). In 2013, five pairs were counted in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, one pair in Pongolo Nature Reserve and one pair in Magudu South Private Game Reserve (Howells et al. 2013). A single pair was believed present at Mkuze Game Reserve but this pair failed to breed successfully in the period 2003-2011. A pair was however recorded incubating during July 2014. In 2010, an additional pair was located on a privately owned nature reserve south of Pongolo Nature Reserve but this site was not active in 2011 as well as in 2013.

The Swaziland population was estimated at about six pairs in the mid-1990s, with breeding recorded from Hlane Royal National Park, Mlawula Nature Reserve and Mkhaya Game Reserve in the northern Lowveld, and suspected from Lavumisa in the southern Lowveld (Parker 1994, 1997). In the early 2000s, there were five known pairs in the country: four in Hlane and one in Mlawula, with the single previously known pair at Mkhaya having abandoned the site sometime in the 1990s (Monadjem et al. 2003, Monadjem 2004a, b, Monadjem and Garcelon 2005). The nests of all five of these pairs disappeared over a five year period and no nests of this species have been located since the late 2000s (A Monadjem unpubl. data).

Based on the information presented above, the total regional population of the White-headed Vulture in the region would appear to be c. 77 breeding pairs (i.e. 158 mature individuals), with 60 pairs in Kruger National Park and eight pairs in the Adjacent Private Nature Reserves (based on Tarboton and Allan's 1984 estimate of the proportion of pairs outside the Kruger National Park) and nine pairs in KwaZulu-Natal. This is at the lower edge of the estimate of 80-120 pair presented in the previous red data book for the region (Anderson 2000d). Confidence in this regional population estimate is high.

Population trend

The global population has shown severe declines throughout its West African range (Thiollay 2006, 2007) and also across southern Africa (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001), thus its global population is estimated to be declining at a slow to moderate rate (BirdLife International 2014). The White-headed Vulture has apparently disappeared entirely as a breeding species over parts of the region since historical times, e.g. most of the area covered by the former Transvaal, the Swaziland Lowveld and possibly parts of Northern Cape, although this has not been as well documented as it has been in the case of the Lappet-faced Vulture. As with that species, this large-scale historical reduction seems to have stabilised in modern times and the breeding range appears to have remained largely unchanged since the 1970s at least (Monadjem 2004). Its remaining primary stronghold is the Kruger National Park and Adjacent Private Nature Reserves, with only remnant breeding populations elsewhere in the region in Zululand in northern KwaZulu-Natal. Everywhere, and somewhat in contrast to the Lappet-faced Vulture, its presence as a breeding bird is entirely restricted to protected areas. Unlike its larger relative, it shows no evidence for any local increases anywhere in its regional range and indeed may be further decreasing in KwaZulu-Natal. Confidence in the regional population trend estimate is medium.

Threats

That this species essentially disappeared unheralded from most of its breeding range outside large protected areas in the region means that knowledge of the dangers underpinning this decrease are extremely poorly documented. Its absence outside protected areas was particularly well documented by Herremans and Herremans-Tonnoeyr (2000) in Botswana. It is vulnerable to the same threats faced by other large vulture species: primarily contamination of its food supply, negative interactions with humans and human infrastructure, and demand for its use in the traditional health industry.

Poisoning is a confirmed threat in the region (Mundy et al. 1992, Herholdt et al. 1997, Verdoorn 1997), backed up with incidents elsewhere in southern Africa (Mundy 1980, Mundy et al. 1992, Bridgeford 2001). In two extra-limital incidents, the poisons used were an organophosphate and carbofuran respectively. In one of these last two cases, the motivation appeared linked to harvesting for the muthi trade, although White-backed Vultures G. africanus may have been the primary target. Research on the traditional health trade in South Africa confirms the demand for this species (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013). A frightening recent development in southern Africa is the mass poisoning of vultures in large protected areas in Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to help cover poaching activities, although the traditional health industry has also been implicated in at least some of these instances (Hancock 2009, Groom et al. 2013, Bradley and Maude 2014). White-headed Vultures, particularly young birds, likely wander widely and this means that birds originating from the region could easily succumb to such incidents in the neighbouring states.

Conservation

Underway

This species also falls under the ambit of the various conservation NGOs active in vulture conservation as detailed under the Cape and White-backed vulture accounts. These include the Bird of Prey and Wildlife and Energy programmes of the Endangered Wildlife Trust, VulPro and the IUCN Vulture Specialist Group. In the region, however, the species is restricted to formally protected areas and the future survival of the White-headed Vulture in these areas is apparently wholly reliant on the security and appropriate management of these properties.

A detailed assessment of the use of vultures, including this species, in traditional medicine in South Africa has recently been undertaken (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013). White-headed Vultures visit and possibly benefit from supplementary feeding sites (‘vulture restaurants') in the same way as other vulture species (Butchart 1988, Piper 2004a,b), although their restriction to conservation areas may render these initiatives less relevant for this vulture in the region. Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife has implemented a formal monitoring plan for this species in the province of KwaZulu-Natal to determine population trends and breeding success as well as to determine age specific mortality rates. A Zululand Vulture Group has been established to co-ordinate vulture conservation interventions within the Zululand region of KwaZulu-Natal. It is comprised of representatives from Non-Governmental Organisations, private land-owners and Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife.

Proposed

The key conservation measures required are similar to those needed for other vulture species in the region but have somewhat limited applicability given the essential restriction of the species to formally protected areas. One danger is that conservation research and management actions in reserves typically do not take bird species into account, despite the importance of these localities to bird conservation, which can result in a lack of the appropriate conservation focus on key bird species. Conservation efforts targeted primarily at the more widespread Cape and White-backed vultures would likely also benefit the rarer White-headed Vulture. The scourge of poisoning needs to be combatted by the rigorous investigation and prosecution of all such instances, as well as the maintenance of ongoing and high-profile education and publicity campaigns. The legal penalties need to be severe enough to act as material deterrents. The recent trend of the mass poisoning of vultures in conservation areas to mask poaching activities and for the traditional health industry requires particular ameliorative action. A move to lead-free ammunition should be considered where relevant.

Pertinent to the use of White-headed Vultures in the traditional health industry, an intervention strategy is required that addresses the following primary areas of action: a) reduce consumption/demand for vultures through an awareness-building campaign targeting public consumers and current roleplayers; b) change/create policy to improve regulation of the vulture trade; c) improve policing and enforcement for better regulation of the trade; d) improve understanding of the trade to allow more focused interventions, including more research and monitoring (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013). McKean and Rushworth (2008) provide supplementary guidelines for interventions aimed at addressing the threat to vultures from traditional use. Firm steps must be maintained to confirm that the food provided at supplementary feeding sites is free from any toxins harmful to the birds.

Research

Key priorities for future conservation research are briefly listed below and are similar to those for other vulture species in the region.

* Regular and accurate censuses of the number of breeding pairs of White-headed Vultures throughout their regional range are a high priority in order to monitor the population size and stability on an ongoing basis. This is likely best-achieved using aerial censuses using fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters (Monadjem and Garcelon 2005, Howells et al. 2011, Murn et al. 2013). Such counts are already being undertaken on an annual basis in the KwaZulu-Natal protected areas where this species occurs (Howells et al. 2011).

* Satellite and GSM tracking of adults, immatures and juveniles can be invaluable in determining vulture movements and mortality factors (Phipps et al. 2013, Bradley and Maude 2014) and should be expanded to this species. Ringing and patagial tagging (Botha 2007, Monadjem et al. 2012) can also provide information on movements and mortality but is likely less cost effective in this regard.

* The foraging habits and diet of this species remain worthy of deeper investigation and proper quantification. Detailed satellite-tracking studies and the employment of state-of-the-art technologies would be particularly relevant here.

* Ongoing research is required relevant to the exploitation of this species in the traditional health industry (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013).

* The issue of potential lead poisoning through bullets, and fragments of bullets, lodged in carcasses available to White-headed Vultures, especially at supplementary feeding sites, requires urgent investigation.

* The potential toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to this species should be investigated.