Red List of South African Species

Alternatively, Explore species
| National Red List categories | Partners |
Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Conrad Matthee Beryl Wilson Terry Robinson Matthew Child
Contributors: Lizanne Roxburgh Andrew Smith
Reviewers: Conrad Matthee Beryl Wilson Terry Robinson Matthew Child

Rationale

Red rock hares are widespread but patchily distributed within the assessment region due to their restriction to areas of rocky habitat. While no estimates of population size or trend are available for any species, we infer large populations for each, given their extents of occurrence, and retain the Least Concern status for all species. However, while their rocky habitats are largely inaccessible and unlikely to be transformed, increasing hunting pressure (inferred from expanding human settlements and anecdotal reports of decline), loss of foraging areas from agricultural expansion, and habitat degradation from overgrazing may be causing local declines and possibe extinctions. These species are easily hunted and are thought to be substantially utilised for subsistence or sport hunting. For example, anecdotal reports from the Northern Cape suggest Smith’s Red Rock Hare has declined over the past 30 years. Similarly, the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs in areas of high human population density and may be increasingly locally threatened by hunting. Emerging threats to Smith’s Red Rock Hare may be increased competition with Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis) following the decline of raptors in the region, grazing pressure from goats and sheep, and increased predation from mesocarnivores due to lack of holistic management.

Concerted research into population size, densities and trends, as well as quantifying the identified threats, should be conducted before specific interventions are implemented if needed. Specifically, the area of occupancy and population trends of Smith’s and Natal Red Rock Hares should be determined and both species reassessed once such data are available. Long-term monitoring sites should be established to detect subpopulation trends in different regions.

Regional population effects: For Natal Red Rock Hare, the majority of the population occurs within the assessment region so no rescue effects are possible. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare has a disjunct distribution between the Namibian population and the rest of its range and it is unlikely that there is any gene flow between the two. However, dispersal between South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe is suspected to occur. Thus, rescue effects are possible. For Smith’s Red Rock Hare, given the approximately 1,750 km separation between the East African and South Africa populations, it is possible that these are two different species and no rescue effect can occur. If this is the case, then the South African population would be near endemic.

Distribution

The close confinement of all Pronolagus species to rocky areas means their distribution is discontinuous and naturally fragmented with vast areas of land within their extent of occurrence unsuitable for them (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). As these species exist in habitat patches, area of occupancy should be calculated using land-cover data and remote sensing.

Pronolagus crassicaudatus is near endemic to the assessment region, with only a tiny part of its range in southern Mozambique in the Maputo Province (known from only two records there, Happold 2013a). It is found in southeastern South Africa in the provinces of Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga (Duthie & Robinson 1990; Matthee et al. 2004), and in Swaziland in the Lumbobo and highveld regions where it is considered uncommon (Monadjem 1998). Although Meester et al. (1986) indicated that it occurs in eastern Lesotho, as it is found from sea level to 1,550 m in elevation (Duthie and Robinson 1990), it is unlikely to occur extensively in Lesotho. Thus, field surveys and specimens are needed to confirm its presence in the country (Lynch 1994). It does occur against the grassy slopes in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg (Pringle 1974). While it is not recorded from the Free State or northeast Eastern Cape (Lynch 1983, 1989), some specimens from the northeastern Eastern Cape possessed both P. rupestris and P. crassicaudatus characters (Lynch 1994).

Pronolagus randensis was first described from Observatory Hill, in what is now almost the centre of Johannesburg. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare occurs in northeastern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, and a separate, isolated population exists marginally in western Angola to central Namibia (Duthie & Robinson 1990; Happold 2013b). There is no reason to suspect gene flow between the two isolated populations, which are some 900 km apart, and taxonomic resolution is required. Within the assessment region, it occurs in Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West provinces.

Pronolagus rupestris occurs in South Africa (Free State, North West, and Northern Cape provinces), and in a separate, isolated population in southwestern Kenya, central Tanzania, eastern Zambia, and Malawi (Duthie & Robinson 1990; Robinson & Matthee 2005). The two populations are separated by 1,200 km and thus require taxonomic resolution (Happold 2013c). Although previously thought to no longer occur in Namibia (Bronner et al. 2003; Happold 2013c), there is one confirmed record from Keetmanshoop (C. Matthee unpubl. data). Field surveys are needed to determine the continued existence, extent and viability of the Namibian population. The species is restricted to rocky outcrops, so the exact area of occupancy is probably lower than indicated from its wide extent of occurrence. Much of the habitat in the region of the distribution map is characterised by isolated rocky outcrops.

Pronolagus saundersiae is endemic to the assessment region (Happold 2013d), with a continuous range along the escarpment of South Africa, including Lesotho and Swaziland. It is widely distributed in the southern and eastern regions of South Africa (including portions of Western Cape, Free State, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces), as well as Lesotho and western expanses of Swaziland. It occurs throughout the Drakensberg escarpment range (Rautenbach 1982; Lynch 1983, 1989), and is restricted mostly to the top of rocky outcrops but does marginally occur in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands. Although Robinson (1982) excluded Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare from occurring in northern Free State Province, specimens were positively identified by Lynch (1983). While Hewitt’s and Natal Red Rock Hares occur sympatrically over some areas, all specimens collected in northeast Eastern Cape were identified as Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare, except one specimen from the farm Hamilton (3028Ca) that could be Natal Red Rock Hare (Lynch 1989). The two species are generally separated by habitat preference where P. saundersiae occurs at higher elevations (C. Matthee unpubl. data). For example, in KwaZulu-Natal Province, it occupies the escarpment and top of the Drakensberg from Underberg to Newcastle (Pringle 1974). In Lesotho, only a single specimen (Mt Moorosi) of Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare was collected by Lynch (1994). However, it is inferred to be more widespread in the country due to observations of its characteristic oval and flattened dung pellets and personal communications with local residents(Lynch 1994). The area of occupancy is in a continuous mountainous region and there is no reason to believe that this region is limited or contracting. Due to the rocky nature of the habitat, it is well conserved in many localities.

All museum records need vetting following taxonomic resolution of these species to accurately delineate the distribution maps.

Population trend

Trend

There are no population size or trend estimates available for any Pronolagus species. The near-endemic Natal Red Rock Hare is a widespread and locally abundant species (Duthie & Robinson 1990; Taylor 1998). However, continually increasing hunting and trapping due to expanding rural settlements is suspected to be causing local declines. This species has a relatively restricted distribution within areas characterised by rapid human population increase.

Similarly, while Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is thought to be fairly common throughout its range (Duthie & Robinson 1990), it too may be experiencing local declines due to encroachment of human settlements and subsequent hunting pressure. Happold (2013b) describes it as being very common in the granite hills of Matopos Hills in Zimbabwe and the sandstone formations of eastern Botswana.

Smith’s Red Rock Hare is thought to have large subpopulations in the Kuruman and Springbok areas but the majority of anecdotal reports collected from farmers across the Northern Cape report a decline in numbers over the past 30 years (B. Wilson unpubl. data.). Happold (2013c) reports the total population size as being above 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa, but this needs investigation.

Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare is considered fairly abundant throughout its distribution (Happold 2013d), although Lynch (1983) recorded it as being rarely collected. Happold (2013d) reported the total population size as being above 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa, but this needs investigation.

All Pronolagus species use latrines and the characteristically disc-shaped pellets are an indication of their presence in an area.

Threats

The main threat to rock hares is hunting, both for bushmeat and for sport. For example, the survival of Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare in Lesotho is threatened due to hunting pressure from herders with packs of dogs (Lynch 1994). While skittish, they can be caught by hand when hiding under rock ledges or boulders (Skinner & Chimimba 2005), and thus may be susceptible to being hunted (see Use and Trade). Hunting pressure is thought to be more severe in areas of high-density human settlements. For example, in the southern part of Jameson’s Red Rock Hare’s eastern range, intensive urbanisation (Johannesburg, Pretoria and surrounds) is likely to be impacting on local subpopulations. Similarly, a high density of rural settlements in KwaZulu-Natal Province, where hunting may be primarily subsistence based, is suspected to be impacting the Natal Red Rock Hare. Sport hunting with dogs may also be impacting these species, particularly Hewitt’s and Natal Red Rock Hares, as empirical evidence suggests a wide range of species are affected and the sport hunters are indiscriminate (Grey-Ross et al. 2010). Additionally, agricultural and rural settlement expansion may be increasing incidental predation on rock hares by domestic dogs. Hunting is suspected to be causing local declines (and possibly local extinctions) in all species but it is uncertain whether there is a net decline in the populations. Long-term monitoring should be established to quantify subpopulation trends across species.

Agricultural expansion may also impact the habitat quality (reducing foraging areas) of subpopulations in different regions, for example, cane and fruit crops in KwaZulu-Natal for Natal Red Rock Hare, eucalyptus and pine plantations for Jameson’s Red Rock Hare and sheep farming for Smith’s Red Rock Hare. For the latter, in areas where there is intensive sheep farming, the species may face grazing competition (B Wilson pers. obs.). Additionally, as a consequence of available food resources, many sheep-farming areas also report higher than normal rates of predators such as Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) and Caracals (Caracal caracal), which is exacerbated by indiscriminate and non-holistic predator control methods (Minnie et al. 2016). These predators pose a threat to the rock hares when at abnormally high numbers. Another possible reason for a decline in population numbers in some areas (for example, the lower Karoo) may be linked to higher-than-normal numbers of sympatric Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis) (B. Wilson pers. obs.). Following recent declines in raptor species in the region (for example, Anderson 2000), some areas have seen population explosions of diurnal hyraxes. The two species now compete directly for food resources. Since rock hare species occur at relatively low densities, it is unlikely that they are considered a significant competitive grazing species and thus are not expected to be persecuted by farmers.

Uses and trade

These species are likely to be fairly important in subsistence communities where they are easily obtained. Maliehe (1993) specifically mentioned rock hares as being an important bush meat item in Lesotho and in Zululand, but this is likely to be true throughout their ranges. As a fairly slow-moving species, they are easily hunted with dogs. At night, they have a tendency to freeze when chanced upon in spotlights and can be easily shot or captured in nets (B. Wilson pers. obs.). During the day, it is also possible to hunt them in their refuges, using a coiled piece of barbed wire that hooks and drags the animal out of its shelter (B. Wilson pers. obs.). Whilst having a particularly warm and thick fur, pelts from these species are prone to hairslip and do not cure well, making them unsuitable for hardwearing fur items.

Conservation

Rock hares exist in numerous national and provincial protected areas, as well as, presumably, private protected areas and conservancies. However, these should be collated and confirmed to estimate current occupancy. They are protected by most Provincial Nature Conservation agencies to a certain degree but not in Gauteng, North West, Western Cape or Eastern Cape provinces. The main intervention at this stage is research to quantify potential threats, area of occupancy, population size and trends. Until such data have been collected, no specific conservation interventions can be proposed. However, the following general interventions will benefit the rock hare species:
  1. Set aside land under crop and livestock agriculture to conserve foraging areas around rocky areas or dry riverbeds.
  2.  Enforce legislation restricting residential development in rocky habitat or hilly slopes.
  3. Employ ecological stocking rates to reduce habitat degradation and grazing pressure.
  4.  Employ holistic management of predators to reduce heightened interspecific predation and competition.
  5. The continued formation of conservancies should be encouraged to protect rocky habitat and reduce localised grazing pressure.
Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:
  • Holistic management of ranchlands through reduction in stocking rates, predator control or areas of set-aside habitat.
Research priorities:
  • Taxonomic revision is suggested for this species, especially for P. saundersiae (Robinson & Matthee 2005). We need to know whether the disjunct populations of P. rupestris and P. randensis are genetically distinct – all inferences about geneflow have not been tested.
  • Fine scale distributional studies across the range.
  • Studies on changes in density across a spectrum of habitat quality. Quantification of population size and trends.
  • Studies into the dispersal abilities and survival of subadult individuals in different habitats.
  • Levels of direct persecution by farmers and subsistence hunters, and the efficacy of education and awareness programmes targeted at landowners.
  • Monitoring of population trends.
  • Vetting of museum records to revise distribution maps.
  • Potential of wildlife ranching and the private sector in conserving rock hares.

Encouraged citizen actions:

  • Refrain from having too many dogs on farms.
  • Report sightings, especially outside protected areas, on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP). Look out for their disc-shaped pellets as an indication of their presence.
  • Balanced farming methods to prevent changes in predation pressures experienced by the hares.

References 

[@book{275,
 address = {Cambridge},
 author = {Skinner, J.D. and Chimimba, C.T.},
 publisher = {Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom},
 title = {The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion},
 year = {2005}
}
,@book{570,
 address = {Parkview, South Africa},
 author = {Friedmann, Y. and Daly, B.},
 publisher = {Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) and Endangered Wildlife Trust},
 title = {Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa: A Conservation Assessment},
 year = {2004}
}
,@book{1087,
 address = {Pretoria, South Africa},
 author = {Meester, J.A.J., Rautenbach, I.L., Dippenaar, N.J. and Baker, C.M.},
 publisher = {Transvaal Museum },
 title = {Classification of Southern African Mammals. Monograph number 5.},
 year = {1986}
}
,@inbook{1087,
 address = {Baltimore, MD, USA},
 author = {},
 booktitle = {Order Afrosoricida},
 editor = {Bronner, G.N. and Jenkins, P.D.},
 pages = {70--81},
 publisher = {The Johns Hopkins University Press},
 title = {Mammal Species of the World},
 year = {2005}
}
,@inbook{3326,
 address = {Gland, Switzerland},
 author = {},
 booktitle = {The African rabbits},
 editor = {Duthie, A.G. and Robinson, T. J.},
 pages = {121--127},
 publisher = {IUCN},
 title = {Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan},
 year = {1990}
}
,@article{5228,
 author = {Monadjem, A.},
 journal = {Koedoe},
 pages = {45--59},
 title = {Distributional patterns and conservation status of mammals of Swaziland, southern Africa},
 volume = {41},
 year = {1998}
}
,@book{9077,
 address = {Pietermaritzburg, South Africa},
 author = {Taylor, P.J.},
 publisher = {University of Natal Press},
 title = {The Smaller Mammals of KwaZulu-Natal},
 year = {1998}
}
,@article{14262,
 author = {Armstrong, A.J. and van Hensbergen, H.J.},
 journal = {South African Forestry Journal },
 pages = {35--42},
 title = {Impacts of afforestation with pines on assemblages of native biota in South Africa},
 volume = {175},
 year = {1996}
}
,@techreport{15655,
 author = {GeoTerraImage},
 title = {1990-2013/14 South African National Land-Cover Change. DEA/CARDNO SCPF002: Implementation of Land-Use Maps for South Africa. Project Specific Data Report},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{16484,
 author = {Grey-Ross, R,Downs, C.T., and Kirkman, K. },
 journal = {South African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {43--52},
 title = {An assessment of illegal hunting on farmland in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for oribi (Ourebia ourebi) conservation},
 volume = {40},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{16484,
 author = {Minnie L, Gaylard A, Kerley GI},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Ecology},
 pages = {379--387},
 title = {Compensatory life-history responses of a mesopredator may undermine carnivore management efforts},
 volume = {53},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{19529,
 author = {Lynch C.D.},
 journal = {Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein },
 pages = {1--116},
 title = {The mammals of the north-eastern Cape Province},
 volume = {25},
 year = {1989}
}
,@article{21693,
 author = {Bronner, G.N., Hoffman, M., Taylor, P.J., Chimimba, C.T., Best, P.B., Matthee, C.A. and Robinson, T.J.},
 journal = {Durban Museum Novitates},
 pages = {56--106},
 title = {A revised systematic checklist of the extant mammals of the southern African subregion},
 volume = {28},
 year = {2003}
}
,@article{136713,
 author = {Lynch, C.D.},
 journal = {Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein},
 pages = {1--218},
 title = {The mammals of the Orange Free State, South Africa},
 volume = {18},
 year = {1983}
}
,@article{111935780,
 author = {Rautenbach, I. L.},
 journal = {Ecoplan monograph, N.S. Supplemento},
 pages = {111--211},
 title = {Mammals of the Transvaal},
 volume = {1},
 year = {1982}
}
,@article{4221,
 author = {Jewitt D, Goodman P.S., Erasmus B.F.N., O’Connor T.G.; and Witkowski E.T.F.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Science },
 pages = {1–9.},
 title = {Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for biodiversity},
 volume = {111},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{6269,
 author = {Lynch CD},
 journal = {Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum, Bloemfontein},
 pages = {177–241.},
 title = {The mammals of Lesotho.},
 volume = { 10},
 year = {1994}
}
,@book{19538,
 address = {Heinemann, London, UK},
 author = {Shortridge GC},
 title = {The Mammals of South West Africa},
 year = {1934}
}
,@techreport{41285,
 address = {Arusha, Tanzania},
 author = {Maliehe TM.},
 institution = {Commonwealth Science Council},
 title = {Non-wood forest products in South Africa.},
 year = {1993}
}
,@article{41285,
 author = {Robinson TJ, Matthee CA.},
 journal = {Mammal Review},
 pages = {231–247},
 title = {Phylogeny and evolutionary origins of the Leporidae: a review of cytogenetics, molecular analyses and a supermatrix analysis},
 volume = {35},
 year = {2005}
}
,@article{41293,
 author = {Anderson MD},
 journal = {Ostrich},
 pages = {25–32},
 title = {Raptor conservation in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa},
 volume = {71},
 year = {2000}
}
,@book{41293,
 address = {London, UK},
 author = {Happold DCD.},
 publisher = {Bloomsbury Publishing},
 title = {<i>Pronoloagus crassicaudatus</i> Natal Red Rock Hare. Pages 713–714 in Happold DCD, editor. Mammals of Africa. Volume III: Rodents, Hares and Rabbits. },
 year = {2013}
}
,@book{41293,
 address = {London, UK},
 author = {Happold, D.C.D.},
 publisher = {Bloomsbury Publishing},
 title = {<i>Pronoloagus randensis</i> Jameson’s Red Rock Hare. Pages 714–715 in Happold DCD, editor. Mammals of Africa. Volume III: Rodents, Hares and Rabbits},
 year = {2013}
}
,@book{41293,
 address = {London, UK},
 author = {Happold, D.C.D.},
 publisher = {Bloomsbury Publishing},
 title = {<i>Pronoloagus rupestris</i> Smith’s Red Rock Hare. Pages 715–716 in Happold DCD, editor. Mammals of Africa. Volume III: Rodents, Hares and Rabbits},
 year = {2013}
}
,@book{41293,
 address = {London, UK},
 author = {Happold, D.C.D.},
 publisher = {Bloomsbury Publishing},
 title = {<i>Pronoloagus saundersiae</i> Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare. Page 717 in Happold DCD, editor. Mammals of Africa. Volume III: Rodents, Hares and Rabbits},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{41293,
 author = {Hewitt, J.},
 journal = {Records of the Albany Museum},
 pages = {434–435},
 title = {On several new rodents in the Albany Museum},
 volume = {3},
 year = {1927}
}
,@article{41293,
 author = {Matthee CA, Robinson TJ},
 journal = {Heredity },
 pages = {514–524},
 title = {Mitochondrial DNA differentiation among geographical populations of <i>Pronolagus rupestris</i>, Smith’s red rock rabbit (Mammalia: Lagomorpha)},
 volume = {76},
 year = {1996}
}
,@article{41293,
 author = {Pringle JA},
 journal = {Annals of the Natal Museum},
 pages = {93–115},
 title = {The distribution of mammals in Natal. Part I. Primates, Hyracoidea, Lagomorpha (except <i>Lepus</i>), Pholidota and Tubulidentata},
 volume = {22},
 year = {1974}
}
,@article{41293,
 author = {Robinson TJ},
 journal = {South African Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {220–222},
 title = {Key to the South African Leporidae (Mammalia: Lagomorpha)},
 volume = {17},
 year = {1982}
}
,@phdthesis{41293,
 author = {Whiteford CEM},
 school = {University of Pretoria},
 title = {Molecular phylogeny of the Genus <i>Pronolagus</i> (Mammalian: Lagomorpha) and the use of morphological and molecular characters in the delineation of <i>P. rupestris</i>. M.Sc},
 year = {1995}
}
,]
Send feedback about this assessment to SANBI

Lead agencies, Partners and Funders

See the partners page