Red List of South African Species

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Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Keenan Stears Adrian Shrader Guy Castley
Contributors: Claire Relton Matthew Child Patricia Moehlman Jeanetta Selier Sarah King
Reviewers: Keenan Stears Adrian Shrader Guy Castley

Rationale

Plains Zebras are listed as Least Concern because they are widespread and abundant throughout the assessment region and, at present, there are no major threats affecting the population. Within South African National Parks alone, there are an estimated 31,948–46,237 individuals (counts conducted from 2010–2012), with Kruger National Park (KNP) containing the bulk of the population (29,161–43,450 individuals). The expansion of wildlife ranches across the country is also increasing the abundance of this species. The only real threat to this species is the fragmentation of its habitat, being restricted to fenced areas, which increases its risk to drought and other disturbances. Continued protected area expansion through transfrontier conservation areas, conservancies and stewardship schemes should be employed to enhance free movement of Plains Zebra in response to climatic variability, and changes in the availability of forage and water.

Regional population effects: Within the assessment region, migration does take place within transfrontier parks, such as KNP and the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA), however the remaining population is typically restricted to private, provincial and national protected areas. A degree of genetic dispersal occurs through the translocation of individuals between these protected areas via game sales. No rescue effects are necessary.

Distribution

This species ranges from the northern region of South Africa northwards to southern Sudan and Ethiopia, and westwards into northern Namibia and southern Angola (Hack et al. 2002). Historically, Plains Zebra exhibited a much broader range across the African continent, and fossil remains have been discovered from North Africa (Churcher & Richardson 1978). More recently, Plains Zebra ranged throughout eastern and southern Africa, with only the exception of the forest belts of Uganda (Duncan 1992), and extended southwards across the Orange and Vaal Rivers in South Africa to the Cape, with the subspecies E. q. quagga, which is now extinct (Groves & Bell 2004). The species is also now extinct in Burundi and Lesotho, and there remains a question over their presence in Angola.

Within the assessment region, the natural range of the Plains Zebra is found in the eastern Lowveld and the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands, and into the Northern Cape. Subpopulations have been widely reintroduced across their natural range, for example, in North West Province where they once occurred throughout the province (du Plessis 1969; Rautenbach 1982; Power 2014). A migratory subpopulation exists in the KNP; however, most other populations do not have sufficient area in which to migrate seasonally. Subpopulations of the species have been introduced into areas outside of its natural range. The Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (between South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe) also supports a subpopulation, and approximately 300 individuals are within the Botswana section.

Population trend

Trend

The Plains Zebra is common, widespread and amongst the most abundant of all grazing mammals in Africa, with a total population size of 663,212 individuals estimated in 2002 (Hack et al. 2002). Recent information regarding global overall population numbers is limited. However, during the previous decades, this species has been extirpated from portions of its range (Hack et al. 2002). Within the assessment region, the population is increasing, both on formally protected areas and the expansion of private wildlife ranches. For example, the subpopulation on Golden Gates Highlands National Park, Free State Province, has increased from 131 to 1,592 individuals between 1994 and 2016 (Bissett et al. 2016). Similarly, on Chelmsford Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province, the Plains Zebra population has increased from 97 to 876 individuals between 1986 and 2014 (KwaZulu-Natal Ezemvelo Wildlife unpubl. data). The generation length of the Plains Zebra has been calculated as 10 years (Pacifici et al. 2013), which makes the three generation window 30 years (1986–2016). While few long-term datasets area available to quantify the overall national population increase, nearly all protected areas show an increasing or stable trend.

Within South African National Parks, there are an estimated 31,948–46,237 (seven protected areas; 2010–2012 counts) individuals (Ferreira et al. 2013), with KNP containing the bulk of the population (29,161–43,450 individuals, estimated using distance sampling in 2012). Overall, there is a minimum estimate of 59,204 individuals on 803 protected areas and wildlife ranches across the country (2010–2015 counts; Endangered Wildlife Trust unpubl. data), which equates to 35,522–41,443 mature individuals assuming a 60–70% mature population structure. Thus, the wild population is well established and appears to be increasing. There are three main groups:
  1. Kruger National Park and the Associated Private Nature Reserves: The KNP is estimated to contain around 54–78% of the total the free-roaming population.
  2. Northern KwaZulu-Natal: The Plains Zebra population was estimated to comprise 12,166 individuals. However, these data do not represent the entire population within the province as they are limited to 22 Ezemvelo-KZN Wildlife protected areas and 31 private reserves. As a result, this value better represents a minimum population estimate.
  3. Limpopo, North West, and Northern Cape provinces: Large numbers in private populations through the region. The North West alone, for example, contains 4,450 individuals on provincial reserves and 8,920 individuals on private properties (Power 2014).
Population density ranges from estimates of 22 animals / km² in Ngorongoro (Klingel 1969), 16.6 animals / km² in Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia (Doku et al. 2007), to 0.9 animals / km² in KNP (Smuts 1976). Densities are also expected to vary seasonally in migratory regions, as not all individuals migrate (Hack et al. 2012).

Threats

Across much of eastern Africa, habitat encroachment by cattle threatens the forage quality and quantity of Plains Zebra while illegal hunting can cause local declines (Hofer et al. 1996; Grange et al. 2004, 2015; Regassa & Yirga 2013). As a result, Regassa and Yira (2013) suggested the implementation of effective management policies to combat illegal settlements and encroachment by humans in the Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary of southern Ethiopia. Within the assessment region, this species is mostly restricted to protected areas; therefore, these threats are unlikely to become a major problem, although localised problems with poaching do occur in protected areas, such as in Borakalalo Nature Reserve, North West Province (Nel 2015). Constrained movements do, however, increase the species’ vulnerability to drought (Walker et al. 1987; Georgiadis et al. 2003). This is particularly true within biomes most at risk to the effects of climate change, water scarcity and enhanced aridity. Subpopulations have shown increases and declines associated with high and low rainfall years, respectively (Gandiwa et al. 2016). Nonetheless, following population declines associated with drought years, Plains Zebra subpopulations have demonstrated fairly rapid recoveries in population abundance to levels above those prior to the drought (Hack et al. 2002). Thus, when provided with adequate habitat and protection from overhunting, the Plains Zebra is recognised as a relatively resilient species.

Equus q. antiquarum, previously considered a distinct subspecies, is currently included under the subspecies E. q. burchelli (Groves & Bell 2004). Occurring in a few isolated subpopulations in protected areas of KwaZulu-Natal, these subpopulations have been considered under threat from population isolation, and possibly the detrimental results of inbreeding (Bowland et al. 2001). Bowland et al. (2001) recognises the importance of improving management practices and the active translocation of small, isolated populations between protected areas in order to sustain genetic diversity and population viability. On the other hand, an important consideration is that the expansion of the species’ range through translocation could introduce new pathogens and parasites to populations without co-evolved resistance to them (Hack et al. 2002). Plains Zebra occur across a range of habitats, and it is probable that they have distinct adaptations to local conditions (Hack et al. 2002). Expanding its range through translocation from ecologically diverse regions may result in a decline in these particular adaptations. Consequently, the spatial scale, ecological conditions, genetics and resistance to diseases need to be considered before translocations occur. Similarly, while wildlife ranching is considered largely beneficial for Plains Zebra conservation in South Africa, and has effectively increased the extent and abundance of the species, some concern exists over the genetic implications of selective breeding for particular colour morphs and outbreeding depression caused by mixing subspecies. Further research is required to quantify this potential threat.

Uses and trade

Plains Zebra is popular amongst both subsistence and commercial hunters for skins, meat and trophies. They were one of the top three most exported animal trophies in Namibia in 2012 (Di Minin et al. 2016). Live animals are frequently traded at game auctions. Trade and hunting of this species is not expected to have a severely negative impact on the population. However, the wildlife ranching industry may be artificially selecting individuals to produce desired colour morphs and/or hybridising native with exotic subspecies. Although this is not expected to impact the wild population, regulations should be established to prevent such individuals from entering formally protected areas. A worrying trend is the increasing intensity of bushmeat hunting in southern Africa (Lindsey et al. 2013), including some areas within the assessment region (Hayward 2009; Nel 2015). Presently, however, these reductions are localised and are unlikely to have an effect on the overall population.

Conservation

Within the assessment region, Plains Zebra occur in numerous well-managed protected areas, where KNP and its surrounding reserves protect the core free-roaming population. The majority of the reserves surrounding KNP are not fenced and allow for unrestricted movement of Plains Zebra and consequently, enhanced genetic diversity. KNP also forms part of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park which allows movement over a much larger scale. The Greater Mapungubwe TFCA also allows unrestricted Plains Zebra migration between Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Continued expansion of transfrontier conservation areas will enable this species to adapt to changing climates and environments and thus enhance the resilience of the population (for example, Bartlam-Brooks et al. 2011).

While no specific interventions are required at present, Hack et al. (2002) recommended the following conservation strategies for Plains Zebra that are relevant for the assessment region:
  1. Improve coverage and frequency of monitoring. Annual or biennial sampling of population abundance, location and conservation status is required in order to detect problems in their primary stages and respond effectively. This is particularly relevant for private protected areas and wildlife ranches to gather baseline information needed to develop a Biodiversity Management Plan and translocation policy.
  2. Improve risk assessment. A detailed and local investigation into site- and subpopulation-specific hazards, particularly with regards to mitigating potential inbreeding, hybridisation and disease transmission on small fenced properties, is necessary.
  3. Quantify and manage genetic diversity, both globally and locally. Management plans may need to be specifically reviewed and implemented for genetically distinct populations.
  4. Investigate the economics of alternative utilisation strategies. Quantifying and comparing the economic uses of this species may guide future global management strategies, and incentivise landowners to further reintroduce subpopulations within the natural range of the species.
Recommendations for land managers
  • Improve management of small subpopulations to prevent inbreeding and a loss of genetic diversity. This can be achieved through the development of a Biodiversity Management Plan and associated translocation policy. For the latter, a harem should be translocated every 5 years for a subpopulation size of c. 9 individuals, while for a population size of c.110 individuals, translocations should take place every 15 years if heterozygosity is to be maintained at more than 90% within each subpopulation over 100 years (Bowland et al. 2001).
  • Remove fences to create conservancies, which allow for an increase in free-roaming subpopulations.
  • Maintain accurate abundance, distribution and population structure records.
  • The management of artificial waterholes plays a vital role in the population dynamics of this species. The spatial distribution of active waterpoints should vary temporally. This will create variation in habitat use and movements across the landscape, thereby sustaining landscape heterogeneity.
Research priorities
  • Investigating the effects of wildlife ranching, including factors associated with sexually-skewed hunting pressure and the corresponding influence on female reproduction success. It is suggested that high turnover rates of dominant, harem males can negatively influence female body condition and hormone fluctuations (Berger 1983). Research is necessary to determine whether this is the case for Plains Zebras.
  • Studies into the factors regulating natural population fluctuations of Plains Zebra would aid in predicting their responses to human-induced changes to their habitats.
  • Examining the spread of pathogens and parasites via harem translocations into new areas.

Encouraged citizen actions:

  • Citizens can refuse to hunt artificial colour morphs and hybrids.
  • Landowners could remove fences and create conservancies and corridors for this species, encouraging natural migrations and movements.
  • Subpopulations outside of the species’ natural distribution (for example, Western Cape Province) could be removed.
  • Private landowners, provincial and national reserves can contribute data on subpopulation numbers and structures to virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP) to ensure accurate assessments of species through the Red Listing process.

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