Red List of South African Species

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Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Jane Waterman Beryl Wilson Matthew Child
Contributors: Nico Avenant Margaret Avery Rod Baxter Duncan MacFadyen Ara Mondajem Guy Palmer Peter Taylor
Reviewers: Jane Waterman Beryl Wilson Matthew Child

Rationale

This species has a wide distribution across the assessment region, occurs in many protected areas – including Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park – and there are no major threats that could cause range-wide population declines. Habitat available for Ground Squirrels is stable if not expanding, as they can exist on overgrazed lands, and thus the expansion of livestock and wildlife ranching may benefit this species. Furthermore, it is a resilient species, adapting its social organisation, space use and breeding to climactic fluctuations, and thus will likely be able to adapt to climate change. No specific interventions are necessary at present.

The Damara Ground Squirrel (Xerus princeps) is Not Evaluated in this revision as, although it may marginally exist in South Africa (for example, at Augrabies National Park; J. Waterman pers. obs.), it is an extreme edge of range species and there is no evidence of a breeding population. It is therefore considered vagrant. However, it may become more prevalent within South Africa (inhabiting mountains, cliffs and gorges) as climate change increases arid conditions, and may thus require a reassessment in future.

Regional population effects: The species’ range is continuous throughout the arid areas of southern Africa and thus dispersal is possible across Namibia and Botswana. Populations in Namibia and Botswana are not expected to decline.

Distribution

This species is restricted to southern Africa, south of the Cunene and Zambezi Rivers (Griffin & Coetzee 2008). It is distributed widely in Namibia, except where replaced by X. princeps in the north-west (Skinner & Chimimba 2005), and is absent from coastal regions. It is confined to the semi-desert Kalahari in Botswana. In South Africa, it occurs mainly in the arid interior, being widely distributed in the arid parts of North West (Power 2014), Free State, the Northern Cape (northern and north-eastern parts of the province) provinces, and southwards to the Graaff Reinet District in the Eastern Cape, which marks the most southerly limit of its distribution (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). There are isolated subpopulations in northern Limpopo Province (I. Gaigher & W. Collinson pers. obs. 2015; Figure 1). It also occurs in western Lesotho (Lynch 1994). The greater part of its range is within the Nama-Karoo and Succulent Karoo biomes in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 100–500 mm (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). The species’ range is continuous throughout the arid areas of southern Africa, except in areas of the western Namib (Skurski & Waterman 2005), which is reflected by mitochondrial DNA work that suggests all subpopulations are genetically connected and represent only a single species (Herron et al. 2005).

Population trend

Trend

This is a common species wherever it occurs. In Namibia, it exists at densities of c. 400 individuals / km2 and, in S.A. Lombard Nature reserve, North West Province, the density is higher (J. Waterman unpubl. data). The population is considered stable based on no net decline in habitat.

Local declines may be expected in areas where Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas) numbers are high due to the removal of apex predators. For example, at three sites in the Northern Cape, there was a negative relationship between Ground Squirrel and Black-backed Jackal abundance (Bagniewska & Kamler 2014).

Threats

There are no major identified threats that could cause population declines. It is considered to be an agricultural pest in some parts of its range (Griffin & Coetzee 2008), but has not been reported as such within the assessment region (Power 2014). There are localised complaints about damage to gravel and farm roads as a result of burrow formations (B. Wilson unpubl. data). They tend to prefer Schmidtia kalaharensis (J. Waterman unpubl. data), a grass that is characteristic of degraded lands, such as where there is overgrazing. Thus, livestock and wildlife ranching, contrary to what was reported in the previous assessment (Friedmann & Daly 2004), are not threats but are probably beneficial to this species.

Uses and trade

There is no evidence for significant utilisation of this species.

Conservation

The species is common in many protected areas across the assessment region, including Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Additionally, the expansion of wildlife ranches across the arid parts of its range may be expanding habitat for this species as it occurs in areas that have been overgrazed or where there are high densities of grazers (J. Waterman unpubl. data). No specific conservation interventions are necessary at present.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: None

Research priorities: An ongoing research project (since 2002) is being conducted in S. A. Lombard Nature Reserve, North West Province, by Prof. Jane Waterman. Research areas include parasitology (Hillegass et al. 2008, 2010), and its energetic costs (Scantlebury et al. 2007); physiology (Scantlebury et al. 2012), including the effects of hormone physiology and resource availability on reproduction (Jackson et al. 2007; Pettitt et al. 2008; Pettitt & Waterman 2011); gender-bias in immunology (Manjerovic & Waterman 2012); effectiveness of chemical immobilization and anaesthesia (Joubert et al. 2011); and behavioural ecology, including interactions with predators and group dynamics (Belton et al. 2007; Unck et al. 2009).

Research priorities regarding the conservation assessment are as follows:
  • The abundance and distribution of the species given various grazing intensities of both livestock and wildlife ranching.
  • The efficacy of this species as an ecological engineer in enhancing small mammal abundance, invertebrate abundance and plant diversity.
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Report sightings of this species, especially outside protected areas, on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP).

References 

[@book{275,
 address = {Cambridge},
 author = {Skinner, J.D. and Chimimba, C.T.},
 publisher = {Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom},
 title = {The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion},
 year = {2005}
}
,@book{570,
 address = {Parkview, South Africa},
 author = {Friedmann, Y. and Daly, B.},
 publisher = {Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) and Endangered Wildlife Trust},
 title = {Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa: A Conservation Assessment},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{5228,
 author = {Lynch, C.D.},
 journal = {Navorsing van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein},
 pages = {177--241},
 title = {The mammals of Lesotho},
 volume = {10},
 year = {1994}
}
,@techreport{5228,
 author = {Power, R.J.},
 institution = {Department of Economic Development, Environment, Conservation & Tourism, North West Provincial Government, Mahikeng},
 title = {The distribution and status of mammals in the North West Province},
 year = {2014}
}
,@book{14262,
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 title = {Rodents of Sub-Saharan Africa: A Biogeographic and Taxonomic Synthesis. },
 year = {2015}
}
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 author = {Bagniewska JM, Kamler JF.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecologyvvvv},
 pages = {546–567},
 title = {Do black-backed jackals affect numbers of smaller carnivores and prey?},
 volume = {52},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Belton LE, Ball N, Waterman JM, Bateman PW.},
 journal = {African Zoology},
 pages = {135–138},
 title = {Do Cape ground squirrels (<i>Xerus inauris</i>) discriminate between olfactory cues in the faeces of predators versus non-predators?},
 volume = {42},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Bennett AF, Huey RB, John-Alder H, Nagy KA.},
 journal = {Physiological Zoology},
 pages = {57–62},
 title = {The parasol tail and thermoregulatory behavior of the Cape ground squirrel <i>Xerus inauris</i>},
 volume = {57},
 year = {1984}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Edwards S, Waterman JM.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {286–291},
 title = {Vigilance and grouping in the southern African ground squirrel (<i>Xerus inauris</i>).},
 volume = {49},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Ewacha MV, Kaapehi C, Waterman JM, Roth JD.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {68–75},
 title = {Cape ground squirrels as ecosystem engineers: modifying habitat for plants, small mammals and beetles in Namib Desert grasslands.},
 volume = {54},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Fick LG, Kucio TA, Fuller A, Matthee A, Mitchell D.},
 journal = {Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology},
 pages = {334–340},
 title = {The relative roles of the parasol-like tail and burrow shuttling in thermoregulation of free-ranging Cape ground squirrels, <i>Xerus inauris</i>},
 volume = {152},
 year = {2009}
}
,@electronic{23145,
 author = {Griffin M, Coetzee N.},
 publisher = {The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008},
 title = {<i>Xerus inauris</i>},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Herron MD, Waterman JM, Parkinson CL.},
 journal = {Molecular Ecology},
 pages = {2773–2788},
 title = {Phylogeny and historical biogeography of African ground squirrels: the role of climate change in the evolution of <i>Xerus</i>},
 volume = {14},
 year = {2005}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Hillegass MA, Waterman JM, Roth JD.},
 journal = {Behavioral Ecology},
 pages = {1006–1011},
 title = {The influence of sex and sociality on parasite loads in an African ground squirrel},
 volume = {19},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Hillegass MA, Waterman JM, Roth JD.},
 journal = {Behavioral Ecology},
 pages = {696–700},
 title = {Parasite removal increases reproductive success in a social African ground squirrel.},
 volume = {21},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Jackson TP, Waterman JM, Bennett NC.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {8–13},
 title = {Pituitary luteinizing hormone responses to single doses of exogenous GnRH in female social Cape ground squirrels exhibiting low reproductive skew.},
 volume = {273},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Joubert KE, Serfontein T, Scantlebury M, Manjerovic M-B, Bateman PW, Bennett NC, Waterman JM.},
 journal = {Journal of the South African Veterinary Association},
 pages = {94–96},
 title = {Determination of an optimal dose of medetomidine-ketamine-buprenorphine for anaesthesia in the Cape ground squirrel <i>(Xerus inauris</i>).},
 volume = {82},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Manjerovic MB, Waterman JM.},
 journal = {PloS One },
 title = {Immunological sex differences in socially promiscuous African ground squirrels},
 volume = {7},
 year = {2012}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Pettitt BA, Waterman JM.},
 journal = {Journal of Mammalogy},
 pages = {378–386},
 title = {Reproductive delay in the female Cape ground squirrel (<i>Xerus inauris</i>).},
 volume = {92},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Pettitt BA, Waterman JM, Wheaton CJ.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {291–298},
 title = {Assessing the effects of resource availability and parity on reproduction in female Cape ground squirrels: resources do not matter.},
 volume = {276},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Scantlebury M, Danek-Gontard M, Bateman PW, Bennett NC, Manjerovic M-B, Joubert KE, Waterman JM.},
 journal = {PloS One},
 title = {Seasonal patterns of body temperature daily rhythms in group-living Cape ground squirrels <i>Xerus inauris</i>},
 volume = {7},
 year = {2012}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Scantlebury M, Waterman JM, Hillegass M, Speakman JR, Bennett NC},
 journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences},
 pages = {2169–2177},
 title = {Energetic costs of parasitism in the Cape ground squirrel <i>Xerus inauris</i>.},
 volume = {274},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Unck CE, Waterman JM, Verburgt L, Bateman PW.},
 journal = {Animal Behaviour},
 pages = {625–632},
 title = {Quantity versus quality: how does level of predation threat affect Cape ground squirrel vigilance?},
 volume = {78},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {van der Merwe M, Brown JS.},
 journal = {Journal of Mammalogy},
 pages = {1162–1169},
 title = {Mapping the Landscape of Fear of the Cape Ground Squirrel (<i>Xerus inauris</i>).},
 volume = {89},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Waterman JM, Fenton MB.},
 journal = {Écoscience},
 pages = {131–136},
 title = {The effect of drought on the social structure and use of space in Cape ground squirrels, <i>Xerus inauris</i>.},
 volume = {7},
 year = {2000}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Waterman JM, Roth JD.},
 journal = {Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology},
 pages = {1675–1683},
 title = {Interspecific associations of Cape ground squirrels with two mongoose species: benefit or cost?},
 volume = {61},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{23145,
 author = {Wilson B.},
 journal = {McGregor Miscellany},
 pages = {6},
 title = {The social life of ground squirrels (<i>Xerus inauris</i>).},
 volume = {6},
 year = {1996}
}
,]
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