Red List of South African Species

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Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Coral Birss Jeanetta Selier
Contributors: Claire Relton
Reviewers: Matthew Child

Rationale

Listed as Least Concern as the species is widespread and abundant within the assessment region, with a global total population size in the millions. Although bushmeat hunting may cause localised declines, the Common Duiker is resilient and should continue to exist in large numbers over its range. This species is also able to exist in agricultural landscapes, providing that the natural peripheral vegetation cover remains intact. It is a key prey species and subpopulations should be sustained by improving habitat condition and installing permeable fences on land outside protected areas as part of holistic management strategies to reduce potential livestock/game damage from predators.


Regional population effects: There are numerous routes for dispersal into the assessment region through transfrontier areas, such as the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area.

Distribution

The Common Duiker is one of the most widely distributed antelopes throughout sub-Saharan Africa (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016), occurring within savannah woodland habitats. Although they may utilise the shelter of forest fringes when disturbed, they are generally absent from forests (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). They do not occur within desert regions unless they are following vegetated watercourses, such as parts of the Namib Desert (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Similarly, they avoid open grasslands where tree cover is limited, aside from the very long grassland habitats of Nyika Plateau in Malawi (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Despite the large-scale anthropogenic habitat conversion, much of their historical geographic range has remained stable as they can persist despite dense human populations (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). This species is considerably adaptable to land transformation, as it is known to persist in peri-urban and urban areas, and on the fringes of agricultural areas, where natural vegetation remains predominantly undisturbed.

In southern Africa, Common Duiker occur extensively through Namibia, Botswana (although they are uncommon in the region of the Okavango Delta), Zimbabwe and Mozambique (south of the Zambezi River). Within the assessment region, it is widespread through all provinces and through all biomes in South Africa, is widespread in Swaziland, but is considered rare in Lesotho (Lynch 1994), which may be a result of its lack of sufficient vegetation cover and browse resources (Skinner & Chimimba 2005).

Population trend

Trend

Aerial surveys produced population density estimates of 0.01–0.15 individuals / km², however, due to the secretive nature of this species, this is likely to be an underestimate (East 1999). Within favourable habitats where this species is common, ground surveys revealed population density estimates of 0.3–1.7 individuals / km² (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). Wilson (2001) summarises some recorded densities of Common Duiker from various localities in Africa in different vegetation types using line transects. Within the assessment region, in the Greater Addo Elephant National Park, Common Duiker occur across a substantial range of habitats, and densities ranged from 0.44 individuals / km² in the less favourable Dunefield habitat class, to 17 individuals / km² in the more suitable Riparian Woodland habitat class (Boshoff et al. 2002). A global population estimate of 1,660,000 was recommended by East (1999), however, more recently Wilson (2013) suggested that this may in fact be an underestimate, and the overall population may be more in the range of 10 million individuals. Generally, the population trend of the Common Duiker is considered to be stable, although some localised declines, as a result of hunting pressure, have been identified in Gabon and Niger (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016).

Within the assessment region, while no comprehensive count data are available, we infer from their wide distribution and high densities that there are well over 10,000 mature individuals with a stable or increasing population trend, albeit with localised declines in some areas from severe hunting pressure. The Common Duiker is one of the few African antelope species that has demonstrated adaptation to urbanisation and human settlements and exhibits continuous distribution within semi-urbanised environments. Its wide range of tolerance for different habitats enables its continuous distribution across the bioregional variation within South Africa, although it has been proposed that this species exhibits clinal variation across bioregions which would need to be supported by genetic research.

Threats

No major threats have been identified for the Common Duiker, however, this species is vulnerable to localised intensive hunting, which may result in local subpopulation declines or extinctions. This species is generally resilient and highly adaptable to habitat conversion and fragmentation, and is often able to persist within human-modified habitats (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016), such as on the fringes of agricultural areas and in close proximity to settlements, provided that suitable vegetation cover is available. However, the erection of impermeable fences is likely to inhibit gene flow. The Common Duiker is fairly resilient to disturbance from human settlements, even where feral dogs pose a risk, demonstrating well developed predator avoidance behaviour. However, young may be especially vulnerable to mortality, due to the increasing presence of stray dogs outside of protected areas. Similarly, increased hunting with dogs in rural areas is responsible for local declines (sensu Grey-Ross et al. 2010). 

Uses and trade

This species is used for traditional and trophy hunting. The trade is properly controlled and is considered to be sustainable. It is also hunted as bushmeat, particularly in rural areas, the effects of which may cause local declines. Due to the abundance and low commercial value, interest in captive breeding and keeping of this species is insignificant.

Within savannah regions, the wildlife and ranching industry has probably had a positive influence on this species, as areas of suitable habitat have increased. However, in arid and fynbos regions the conversion from livestock to wildlife ranching is likely to have resulted in increased competition for food resources, and resultantly local abundance declines of Common Duiker, due to the stocking of additional species that did not naturally occur within those bioregions. Additionally, game farms with high quality impermeable fences may pose a threat to gene flow.

Conservation

Although this species is present within numerous protected areas, including Kruger National Park and Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, as well as on private lands, its survival is not currently dependant on protected areas as they are abundant in landscapes outside protected areas. However, the maintenance of gene flow and clinal variation will depend on the establishment and maintenance of landscape and biodiversity corridors, such as by installing permeable fences. Population persistence and abundance should be monitored on private lands, and localised threats associated with feral dogs and bushmeat hunting should be controlled as much as possible.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:

  • Monitor persistence through the collection of sightings records.
  • Monitor density where species is hunted.
  • Determine level of clinal variation at landscape scale through genetic research: collect and bank genetic samples to support genetic analysis.
  • Promote this species as a natural forage species for indigenous predators as part of the “holistic approach” to damage-causing animal management. Apply genetic conservation principles in the management of the ecotypic species. Where feasible and practical, ensure that fences are permeable particularly on conservation/stewardship sites.

Research priorities: The collection and storage of distribution information to monitor persistence of Common Duiker in the landscape is being conducted by CapeNature in the Western Cape. This information is used in bioregional planning and to inform gaps in data for the Western Cape. Research priorities include:

  • Quantifying the effects of wildlife ranching on this species across bioregions.
  • Quantifying the effects of habitat fragmentation on gene flow and clinal variation within this species.
  • Quantifying the level of bushmeat hunting and illegal hunting with dogs.

Encouraged citizen actions:

  • Report sightings and roadkills on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas.
  • Landowners should ensure that disturbance of this species and its young is kept to a minimum, particularly with regards to domestic dogs.
  • Report feral dogs and illegal hunting to the local municipality or conservation agency for follow-up actions.
  • Landowners should monitor persistence and population densities.
  • Promote fence permeability.
  • Submit hunting returns (this enables higher confidences in calculating impacts of hunting and evaluating bag limit size).
  • Create conservancies and maintain green corridors in urban landscapes.
  • Understand and support the concept of genetic conservation with particular regard to ecotypic species and their management.

References 

[@inbook{6236,
 address = {Amsterdam, The Netherlands},
 author = {},
 booktitle = {<i>Damaliscus pygargus</i>},
 editor = {David, J. and Lloyd, P.},
 publisher = {Academic Press},
 title = {The Mammals of Africa},
 year = {2013}
}
,@book{16484,
 address = {Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK},
 author = {East, R. (compiler)},
 publisher = {IUCN},
 title = {African Antelope Database 1998},
 year = {1999}
}
,@book{4143,
 address = {Bulawayo, Zimbabwe},
 author = {Wilson, V.J.},
 publisher = {Directory Publishers},
 title = {Duikers of Africa: Masters of the African Forest Floor},
 year = {2001}
}
,]
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