Rationale

Listed as Least Concern as the Steenbok is widely distributed (and continues to be well represented in protected areas according to 2012–2013 game counts), considered to be relatively common (for example, 3.78 animals/² on two small-livestock farms in the Northern Cape and Free State provinces) and no major threats have been identified within the assessment region. Although local and regional declines are suspected due to bushmeat hunting and competition with livestock outside of protected areas, especially where human densities are high, the population trend is generally stable. The effects of the conversion to wildlife ranching on this species should be monitored across the various bioregions, as Steenbok in arid and fynbos habitats may be vulnerable to increasing competition with introduced extralimital herbivores, and which may represent an emerging threat given the expansion of the wildlife ranching industry. Key interventions include the formation of conservancies and the promotion of permeable fences.

Regional population effects: There is dispersal across regions through transfrontier spaces along the northern border of South Africa (including the Kgalagadi and Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Parks). Rescue effects are considered possible.

Distribution

In Africa, this species occurs in two disjunct areas, one in East Africa, including northern and central Tanzania and into southern Kenya, and the other in southern Africa, intruding marginally into southern Angola and western Zambia (Skinner & Chimimba 2005; du Toit 2013). These regions are separated by the tall, dense Miombo woodlands of central Zambia, northern Mozambique and Malawi (du Toit 2013), and are approximately 1,000apart (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Steenbok are generally absent from forested and thick woodland areas (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). In East Africa, their distribution has declined somewhat as they previously occurred in Uganda, but much of their appropriate habitat has been transformed due to agriculture (East 1999).

The southern African distribution extends through suitable habitats southwards from southern Angola and western Zambia, across most of Namibia (with the exception of the extreme arid, coastal regions), throughout Botswana, into central and southern Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique and across most of South Africa (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). Its distribution is continuous and widespread throughout South Africa with lower densities in areas without suitable cover. Within the assessment region this species is present in all provinces, throughout a number of habitat types, including grassland, savannah, shrublands and semi-desert, absent only from the southeastern forested regions of the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (du Toit 2013). It is likely that Steenbok once occurred in the lowlands of Lesotho, as they occur along the Caledon River in the eastern Free State (N. Avenant pers. comm. 2016), but were not recorded by Lynch (1994) and subsequent field surveys have failed to detect the species (Ambrose & Talukdar 2000; N. Avenant unpubl. data). Locals in the area have positively identified the species from memory (Sesotho name for Steenbok is Thiane), suggesting it was once present (N. Avenant pers. comm. 2016), but is probably regionally extinct due to overhunting (sensu Lynch 1994).

Habitat View more ecological information

Population trend

Trend

Threats

No major threats have been identified for this species, however, Steenbok are locally susceptible to predation by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and subsistence hunters who frequently capture and kill juveniles in particular (when they are found lying alone in cover) for bushmeat (Lynch 1994; du Toit 2013; IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). Although these threats are not suspected to cause range-wide population declines, they can result in local declines or even local extinction (for example, Lesotho).

Habitat fragmentation through the erection of impermeable fences in the development of wildlife or livestock ranches may inhibit gene flow for this species, as well as other small antelopes and similar sized animals. Additionally, overstocking and mismanagement of livestock or wildlife ranches leading to overgrazing and declines in habitat and forage quality may threaten the success of this species. The development of wildlife ranches is likely to affect local Steenbok subpopulations disparately across different bioregions. Within arid regions and the Fynbos Biome, herbivores are historically less diverse and numerous, and ecological niches are narrow (compared to savannah regions); thus the introduction of extralimital herbivores into these regions is likely to increase competition for local Steenbok populations.

Uses and trade

This species is used, both legally and illegally, by biltong hunters and for bushmeat respectively. Additionally, it is targeted by international trophy hunters, as one of the “Tiny 10” small antelope, but this occurs at low levels. However, there is little national or international commercial value of this species, and there is limited translocation of this species within the game industry, possibly due to its persistence in the landscape. Translocations across bioregional boundaries are actively discouraged through conservation legislation.

In parts of its range (such as mesic savannah regions), wildlife ranching and the private sector may have a positive effect on this species, as the conversion from livestock to wildlife ranches is speculated to have improved habitat conditions and decreased persecution rates. However, this is not always the case, and across much of its range, particularly within arid and fynbos regions, game farming and the introduction of competing species, particularly extralimital and exotic species, may cause local declines of Steenbok. Additionally, the establishment of game farms with high-quality impermeable fences poses a substantial threat to gene flow. Due to its abundance and low commercial value, interest in captive breeding is insignificant. This species is also considered to be density dependent and self-regulating. Land owners are encouraged to monitor persistence, density and number of adult males when hunting off-takes are considered.

Conservation

Steenbok are widespread, and occur extensively within protected areas and private ranch lands. Injudicious translocation of this species needs to be addressed: reintroductions and translocations need to source animals from the same ecotypic range (not more than 100 km away). Habitat connectivity across different vegetation types is essential to maintain gene-flow and clinal variation within the species. Thus, the formation of conservancies and the promotion of permeable fences is required to ensure ecologically-resilient subpopulations of Steenbok.

Monitoring numbers of Steenbok is important for the development of management strategies, investigating population dynamics, and understanding the relationships between predators and prey (Stenkewitz et al. 2010). Due to its cryptic and solitary nature, this species is not suitable for harvesting in any feasible meat-production system, and should not be promoted as a viable species in the wildlife-based rural economy as a source protein. It is likely that Steenbok harvesting would exhibit low financial feasibility and would cause counter-productive disturbance to local Steenbok subpopulations.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:

• Promote this species as a natural forage species for indigenous predators as part of the “holistic approach” to the management of damage-causing animals. Apply genetic conservation principles in the management of this ecotypic species.
• Where feasible and practical, ensure that fences are permeable particularly on conservancies/stewardship sites.
• Monitor persistence through the collection of sighting records.
• Monitor population density in areas where this species is hunted.
• Determine the level of clinal variation at a landscape scale through genetic research: collect and bank genetic samples to support genetic research.

Research priorities:

• Effects of wildlife ranching on this species across various bioregions.
• Extent of habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlement.
• Functional properties of Steenbok in seed dispersal.
• Investigations into the relationship between this species and other forage species and damage causing animals, relating specifically to the “holistic approach” to DCA management.
• Map the genetic composition of the southern African population in order to ensure the development of effective and informed decisions relating to reintroductions and translocations of this species.
• The collection of distribution information to monitor the persistence of this species in the landscape across the Western Cape, as well as ad hoc information is currently being collected and stored by CapeNature. This information is used for bioregional planning and to determine data gaps in the Western Cape.

Encouraged citizen actions:

• Report sightings and roadkills on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas.
• Landowners should ensure that disturbance of this species and its young is kept to a minimum, particularly with regards to domestic dogs.
• Create conservancies to broaden habitat available for the species.
• Install permeable fences.
• Understand and support the concept of genetic conservation with particular regard to ecotypic species and their management.
• Report illegal hunting to provincial conservation authorities. 
• Submit hunting returns (to enable higher confidences in calculating impacts of hunting and evaluating bag limit size).