Red List of South African Species

Alternatively, Explore species
| National Red List categories | Partners |
Near Threatened (NT)
Assessors: Sharon Louw Brent Coverdale
Contributors: Lizanne Roxburgh Ara Mondajem Peter Taylor Nico Avenant Margaret Avery Rod Baxter Duncan MacFadyen Guy Palmer Beryl Wilson
Reviewers: Matthew Child

Rationale

The Red Squirrel has a restricted and fragmented range within the assessment region. Although existing at the edge of its range, it is common in suitable habitats and occurs in well-protected forest reserves, such as iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Ongoye Forest Reserve, Mhkuze Game Reserve and Ndumo Game Reserve. Although the northern KwaZulu-Natal forests are largely secure, there is a continuing decline in natural habitat (19.7% loss of natural habitat in KwaZulu-Natal from 1994 to 2011, with an average loss of 1.2% per annum), with the losses mainly occurring in small (< 0.5 ha) forest patches. Additionally, habitat degradation from human encroachment (from 2000 to 2013, there was a 5.6% and 1.1% rate of urban and rural expansion, respectively, in the province), such as fuelwood extraction, may indicate a continuing decline in habitat quality along protected area edges if large canopy gaps are produced. Thus, although habitat loss and degradation are unlikely to be affecting the core protected population, there is still an inferred absolute ongoing decline in suitable habitat. Overall, the estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) is 12,232 km2 (or 6,511 km2 if we exclude the Ngoye Forest subpopulation) and the area of occupancy (AOO) (based on remaining forest patches) is 453–721 km2. Although the species qualifies for Vulnerable B1,2ab(ii,iii), we downlist to Near Threatened B1,2ab(ii,iii) based on the rescue effect (see below).

Although molecular research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this potential species complex, the Ngoye Forest subpopulation is suspected to be a source of genetic diversity and warrants special attention. The Ngoye Forest subpopulation is restricted to one location with an AOO of 31–35 km2 and an estimated total number of mature individuals of 13,392–15,120. Although there has been no net decline in the area under formal protection, excessive fires, leading to increased patchiness of the forest, specifically on the forest periphery and extending outwards of the formally protected area, have occurred within recent years. This indiscriminate burning is resulting in increased alien plant infestation and habitat transformation, which may reduce the available habitat for the Ngoye Forest subpopulation. Ngoye Red Squirrels are rare or absent in such areas and further research is needed to determine whether such degradation is causing subpopulation decline, the results of which will require reassessment as the subpopulation may qualify for Critically Endangered B1,2ab(iii). Recent research suggests that current levels of fuelwood harvesting do not affect canopy structure, but increased harvesting levels will threaten the forest structure. Thus, we list as Vulnerable D2, with the proviso that wood harvesting and fire levels should be closely monitored and managed. As such, this subpopulation remains conservation dependent.

Interventions for this species include protected area expansion to connect forest fragments and enforcement on regulation to prevent disturbances and degradation inside existing forests. If P. p. tongensis is proved to be restricted to Maputaland then it will need reassessment. We recommend molecular research to resolve the complicated taxonomy of this potential species complex within the assessment region.

Regional population effects: Dispersal is possible through the northern border of KwaZulu-Natal into Mozambique, particularly through the Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area. Habitat is largely connected in these areas, especially as the species is an adequate disperser and can use secondary habitats. The species is also very common throughout the rest of its range. For example, it is abundant in Maputo Elephant Reserve and throughout the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. However, the Ngoye subpopulation may be isolated from the rest of the species, but not enough is known about its dispersal ability.

Distribution

This species is widely distributed along the coastal forests of southern and eastern Africa (Monadjem et al. 2015), ranging from southern Somalia in the north, southwards to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, being found as far south along the coast as Lake Saint Lucia, with an isolated subpopulation in the Ngoye Forest (Viljoen 1989), which marks the southern limit. Within this range, their occurrence is patchy and discontinuous due to the fragmented nature of remaining forest where deforestation has previously occurred (Lawes et al. 2004; Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Within the assessment region, it occurs in evergreen coastal forests (Mugo et al. 1995; Skinner & Chimimba 2005), such as sand and scarp forests, exclusively in KwaZulu-Natal, and is common and widespread in the secure habitats of the northeastern regions and Maputaland (Figure 1). It appears not to occur in Swaziland (Monadjem 1998), despite potentially similar and connected habitat being found in the Lubombo region.

The potential subspecies are relict populations from habitats that were once connected to larger tracts of forests that continued northwards into Mozambique (Mugo et al. 1995). The Ngoye Red Squirrel, P. p. ornatus, is an Afromontane relic, isolated from other subpopulations for at least 6,000 years and is distinct morphologically. It may be a separate species but molecular work is needed to confirm this. However, Ongoye Forest Reserve is certainly a key protected area for this species as a reservoir of genetic diversity. Although the subspecies P. p. tongensis has been recognised (Meester et al. 1986), with the type specimen coming from Manguzi Forest, and assessed separately before (Friedmann & Daly 2004), there is no evidence for its taxonomic uniqueness and it is not considered to be a Maputaland endemic in this assessment, until further taxonomic research has occurred.

The extent of the occurrence (EOO) for the species is 6,511–12,232 km2 while the combined area of occupancy (AOO), based on remaining natural forest habitat (GeoTerraImage 2015), is between 641–721 km2. This is based on all natural forest within (or intersecting) the range, and not just patches for which there are records. It does not include nearby forests outside of the EOO, because, despite the adequate dispersal abilities of the species (Viljoen 1986), rates of colonisation of forest fragments within KwaZulu-Natal are low (Lawes et al. 2000a), which means that patches of forest for which there are no records for the species are probably unoccupied in reality (true negatives). Similarly, as P. p. ornatus is restricted to Ngoye Forest (which includes Ongoye, Dengweni, Ezigwayini and Impeleshu Nature Reserves and the respective extensions falling within the Mzimela Traditional Council area), its AOO is calculated as 31–35 km2. The AOO for confirmed present forest patches (excluding Ongoye Nature Reserve) is 453–509 km2.

Population trend

Trend

Overall, the species is common and abundant throughout northeastern KwaZulu-Natal, such as in Ndumo Game Reserve and iSimangiliso Wetland Park, and throughout the rest of its range. As forest habitat is currently stable, we infer that the population trend is stable. Viljoen (1986) calculated a density of 2.2 mature individuals / ha (or 449 g / ha), which equates to a population size of 97,395–155,015 based on a range of AOO estimates for the species (453–721 km2). Similarly, the density of P. p. ornatus was calculated as 4.3 individuals / ha (again excluding juveniles), which yields a mature population size of 13,392–15,120 for Ngoye Forest. Thus, the population size for this species is estimated to be large, although Viljoen (1986) cautions that juvenile recruitment is low. This direct extrapolation may, however, overestimate the current size for this subpopulation as a result of varying habitat assemblages, created through anthropogenic influence (fire, grazing, wood extraction), within the forest complex and limited number of reported sightings by persons working in the area. Although the core population is suspected to have remained stable since at least the 1990s, due to strong forest protected areas in the region, ongoing habitat loss is inferred to be causing a net decline in the population.

Threats

The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation, although the extent to which these affect the species currently needs research. Although much of its coastal forest habitat has been deforested or degraded historically, it currently occurs in well-protected habitat and, since the 1990s, there has been no real evidence for population decline (Mugo et al. 1995). Furthermore, it is probably not as threatened as ground-dwelling small mammals, such as shrews, because overgrazing and small-scale fuelwood collection will not alter habitat structure as drastically. For example, in a study assessing the impact of human utilisation of woodlands and sand forests in Maputaland, while utilisation decreased averaged stem diameter, the height structure of the forest remained largely unchanged (Gaugris & Van Rooyen 2010). Similarly, in Ongoye Forest Reserve specifically, no instance of canopy tree logging has been recorded (understorey species harvested exclusively at a harvesting pressure of 11.6% of available pole-size trees) and most species harvested for building materials and fuelwood regenerate over small spatial scales, suggesting that the level of harvesting is sustainable (Boudreau et al. 2005), yet this is not the case in adjacent areas within the Ngoye forest complex. A further study concluded that such understorey harvesting at low levels of harvesting (11.6%) does not affect the regeneration of canopy species and will not detrimentally affect the overall species composition of scarp forest (Boudreau & Lawes 2005). Similarly, Louw (2010) found that, while creating small gaps from harvesting pole-sized trees will not affect forest dynamics and species composition, harvesting in excess of eight adjacent trees, and so creating larger gaps, will potentially lead to successional shifts and alternate states in the ecosystem, potentially negatively affecting habitat suitability for the Ngoye Red Squirrel. Thus, harvest management should be regulated accordingly. Other factors that could cause habitat degradation are wildfires and alien plant infestations. For example, over recent years, forest patches have been lost in Ngoye Forest from excessive fires and the Ngoye Red Squirrel has neither been seen in such degraded patches nor the outer-lying eastern forest patches (S. Louw pers. obs. 2016). Furthermore, the protected areas and forest patches extending into the Mzimela Traditional Council area have minimal control, face the same challenges and run the risk of agricultural and residential developments together with their associated infrastructure, and are thus impacted to a greater extent.

Overall, although current rates of habitat loss and degradation appear not to be negatively affecting the population, we take a precautionary purview as an absolute net decline in habitat in the region (see below) and increased levels of harvesting pressure could rapidly affect the species in the near future.

Uses and trade

This species is not traded or utilised. There is no evidence for its use as bushmeat.

Conservation

This species occurs in well protected coastal forest reserves, such as, iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Ongoye Forest Reserve, Mhkuze Game Reserve and Ndumo Game Reserve. Further field studies should document in which unprotected forest patches the species occurs, so as to assess the threat of losing small patches (Lawes et al. 2004), and to inform protected area expansion strategies. For example, a transfrontier conservation area in Maputaland that connects with the existing Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area has recently been proposed and would add 480 km2 of linking corridors between forest habitats and potentially generate US$18.8 million from game ranching (Smith et al. 2008). Such a protected area network would undoubtedly benefit this species. Biodiversity stewardship schemes that protect remaining patches of forest would also help to create corridors.

Conservationists should also work with local communities to regulate the harvesting of pole-sized trees in forests. For example, recent research suggests that small-scale harvesting of understorey trees (around 11% of available stems) should be sustainable and not alter forest structure if fewer than eight trees are harvested adjacently in any one area (Boudreau et al. 2005; Boudreau & Lawes 2005; Louw 2010).

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:
  • Conservation authorities should develop harvesting strategy guidelines for understorey trees and engage with local communities.
  • Enforce regulations on developments that potentially impact on the habitat integrity of forests.
  • Conservation authorities should control and manage livestock grazing within forest protected areas.
  • Conservation authorities and local Fire Protection Associations should monitor the burning regimes adjacent to indigenous forest patches and provide necessary support to burn appropriate fire breaks around such areas.
Research priorities:
  • Further field studies are needed to determine the distribution of this species in forest patches within the matrix between protected areas.
  • More research and systematic reviews are needed to determine the net effects of forest land cover change on this species.
  • Molecular research is necessary to resolve the taxonomy of this potential species complex.
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Report sightings and photograph this species, especially outside protected areas, on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP).

References 

[@book{275,
 address = {Cambridge},
 author = {Skinner, J.D. and Chimimba, C.T.},
 publisher = {Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom},
 title = {The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion},
 year = {2005}
}
,@book{570,
 address = {Parkview, South Africa},
 author = {Friedmann, Y. and Daly, B.},
 publisher = {Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) and Endangered Wildlife Trust},
 title = {Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa: A Conservation Assessment},
 year = {2004}
}
,@book{1087,
 address = {Pretoria, South Africa},
 author = {Meester, J.A.J., Rautenbach, I.L., Dippenaar, N.J. and Baker, C.M.},
 publisher = {Transvaal Museum },
 title = {Classification of Southern African Mammals. Monograph number 5.},
 year = {1986}
}
,@article{2620,
 author = {Mugo, D.N., Lombard, A.T., Bronner, G.N. and Gelderblom, C.M.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {115--126.},
 title = {Distribution and protection of endemic or threatened rodents, lagomorphs and macrosceledids in South Africa},
 volume = {30},
 year = {1995}
}
,@techreport{3326,
 address = {Pretoria},
 author = {GeoTerraImage},
 title = {Quantifying settlement and built-up land use change in South Africa},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{9077,
 author = {Jewitt, D., Goodman, P.S., Erasmus, B.F.N., O’Connor, T.G. and Witkowski, E.T.F.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Science },
 pages = {1--9},
 title = {Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Implications for biodiversity},
 volume = {111},
 year = {2015}
}
,@book{14262,
 address = {Berlin, Germany},
 author = {Monadjem, A., Taylor, P.J., Denys, C. and Cotterill, F.P.D.},
 publisher = {De Gruyter},
 title = {Rodents of Sub-Saharan Africa: A Biogeographic and Taxonomic Synthesis. },
 year = {2015}
}
,@book{30209,
 address = {Mbabane, Swaziland.},
 author = {Monadjem A},
 publisher = {Conservation Trust of Swaziland and Big Games Parks},
 title = {The mammals of Swaziland},
 year = {1998}
}
,@article{41245,
 author = {Lawes, M.J., Meakin, P.E. and Piper, S.E.},
 journal = {Conservation Biology},
 pages = {1088--1098},
 title = {Patch occupancy and potential metapopulation dynamics of three forest mammals in fragmented Afromontane forest in South Africa},
 volume = {14},
 year = {2000}
}
,@article{41245,
 author = {Lawes MJ, Macfarlane DM, Eeley HA},
 journal = {Austral Ecology},
 pages = {613--623},
 title = {Forest landscape pattern in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands, South Africa: 50 years of change or stasis?},
 volume = {29},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{4221,
 author = {Linden B., Linden J., Fischer F., Linsenmair K.E.},
 journal = {African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {88–99},
 title = {Seed dispersal by South Africa’s only forest-dwelling guenon, the samango monkey (<i>Cercopithecus mitis</i>)},
 volume = {45},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{4221,
 author = {Smith RJ et al.},
 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {2127–2138},
 title = {Designing a transfrontier conservation landscape for the Maputaland centre of endemism using biodiversity, economic and threat data},
 volume = {141},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{6409,
 author = {Boudreau, S., Lawes, M.J., Piper, S.E. and Phadima, L.J.},
 journal = {Forest Ecology and Management},
 pages = {149--165},
 title = {Subsistence harvesting of pole-size understorey species from Ongoye Forest Reserve, South Africa: Species preference, harvest intensity, and social correlates},
 volume = {21},
 year = {2005}
}
,@article{6409,
 author = {Boudreau S, Lawes MJ. },
 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {279--286},
 title = {Small understorey gaps created by subsistence harvesters do not adversely affect the maintenance of tree diversity in a sub-tropical forest},
 volume = {126},
 year = {2005}
}
,@article{6409,
 author = {Gaugris JY, Van Rooyen MW},
 journal = {South African Journal of Botany},
 pages = {289--298},
 title = {Woody vegetation structure in conserved versus communal land in a biodiversity hotspot: a case study in Maputaland, South Africa},
 volume = {76},
 year = {2010}
}
,@phdthesis{6409,
 author = {Louw SL},
 school = {University of KwaZulu-Natal},
 title = {The effect of the spatial scale of tree harvesting on woody seedling establishment and tree dynamic at Ongoye Forest Reserve.},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{16205,
 author = {Viljoen S.},
 journal = {Mammalia },
 pages = {293–310},
 title = {Use of space in southern African tree squirrels.},
 volume = {50},
 year = {1986}
}
,@book{16210,
 address = {Baltimore},
 author = {Thorington Jr., R.W, Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. },
 publisher = {The John Hopkins University Press},
 title = {Squirrels of the World},
 year = {2012}
}
,@article{16210,
 author = {Corrigan BM, Kneen M, Geldenhuys CJ, van Wyk BE.},
 journal = {Southern Forests: a Journal of Forest Science},
 pages = {47–55},
 title = {Spatial changes in forest cover on the KwaNibela Peninsula, St Lucia, South Africa, during the period 1937 to 2008},
 volume = {72},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{16210,
 author = {Lawes MJ, Eeley HAC, Piper SE.},
 journal = {Biodiversity & Conservation},
 pages = {683–705},
 title = {The relationship between local and regional diversity of indigenous forest fauna in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.},
 volume = {9},
 year = {2000}
}
,@phdthesis{16210,
 author = {Viljoen S.},
 school = {University of Pretoria},
 title = {A comparative study on the biology of two subspecies of tree squirrels, <i>Paraxerus palliatus tongensis</i> (Roberts. 1931) and <i>Paraxerus palliatus ornatus</i> (Gray. 1864) in Zululand. Ph.D. Thesis.},
 year = {1980}
}
,@article{16210,
 author = {Viljoen S.},
 journal = {Annals of the Transvaal Museum},
 pages = {49–60},
 title = {Taxonomy and Historical Zoogeography of the Red Squirrel <i>Paraxerus palliatus</i> (Peters, 1852) in the Southern African Subregion (Rodentia: Sciuridae).},
 volume = {35},
 year = {1989}
}
,]
Send feedback about this assessment to SANBI

Lead agencies, Partners and Funders

See the partners page