Rationale
This is a widely distributed species with no signs of significant habitat loss, as its habitats are inaccessible and remote. There are many subpopulations in formally protected areas and private land and the overall population within the assessment region is assumed to be stable as there is no evidence for decline. However, anecdotal reports suggest local declines from illegal hunting. This threat should be quantified to assess its severity. Recent records are available across a range of protected areas throughout its range, and it can occur at densities of 0.01â0.3 individuals / km². It should continue to survive in substantial numbers in extensive, inaccessible areas outside of protected areas, where habitats such as koppies, cliffs and hillsides preside. Thus, this species remains Least Concern.
Regional population effects: There are numerous routes for dispersal into the assessment region. For example, along the Lebombo Mountains through Mozambique into northeastern KwaZulu-Natal, across the Limpopo in the Mapungubwe area in northern Limpopo, as well as across the Richtersveld in the Northern Cape linking the mountain chains along the Namibian escarpment. The habitat for this species is thus mostly continuous along mountain ranges. Rescue effects are assumed to be possible.
Distribution
This species has a widespread, yet patchy distribution from the southwestern limits of South Africa to northeast Africa, including southern Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and the Ethiopian Highlands, where they occur at up to 4,380 m asl (Yalden et al. 1996; Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Additionally, their range extends along the southwest of Africa through Namibia and the southwestern regions of Angola. Isolated populations of Klipspringer are located in the Central African Republic, Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (East 1999; Nicholas 2004; Roberts 2013). In all likelihood, the Klipspringer is now extinct in Burundi. In Mozambique, anecdotal reports suggest they occur east of the Limpopo River north of Mabalane along the main north-south road but have not recently been seen in Gorongosa National Park (M. Stalmans pers. comm. 2016).
Within the assessment region, they occur throughout most montane regions of South Africa, and are largely present within their former range. However, historical evidence suggests a range reduction in certain areas, such as in regions of the Eastern Cape Province (Lloyd & Millar 1983; Lynch 1989), Free State Province (Lynch 1983; Avenant 1997, 2000), and Lesotho, where Lynch (1994) predicted them to occur, but repeated field surveys between 1996 and 2014 have not detected them (N. Avenant unpubl. data), the closest record being Cathedral Peak on the KwaZulu-Natal side of the Drakensberg Mountains. Corroborating this, 95â100% of respondents (cattle herders in Lesotho) from questionnaire data stated that Klipspringer were no longer found in their areas (Avenant 2004).
Their range is extensive across the Limpopo Province, extending into the northern and eastern regions of both the North West and northeastern Mpumalanga provinces respectively and into the Maluti Mountains (du Plessis 1969). Within KwaZulu-Natal, they occur above 2,400 m asl in the Drakensberg, along the escarpment from Giantâs Castle northwards, and have a scattered, isolated distribution across small areas of the remainder of the province, including Ithala and Mkhuze Game Reserves, Weenen Nature Reserve, as well as on a number of isolated private farms. Similarly, this species has a patchy distribution in the Free State with isolated historical records at Boshoff, Bethlehem, Colesberg, Philipolis and Leribe in Lesotho (near Ficksburg, Free State Province) (du Plessis 1969; Skinner & Chimimba 2005; Boshoff & Kerley 2013). Their range is widespread across the mountainous regions of the Western Cape, extending to the Middelburg, Graaff-Reinet, Grahamstown and Uitenhage regions of the Eastern Cape (Skinner & Chimimba 2005; Skead 2007) and into the Northern Cape to Namibia and along the Orange River to Upington, with patchy distribution in the Carnavon and Beaufort West regions (Estes 1991; Skinner & Chimimba 2005; Skead 2011). While they naturally occur in the bushveld of the Magaliesberg and Swartruggens rocky hills of North West Province (Power 2014), records from the southern parts of the province are considered introductions.
Population trend
Trend
This species is limited to rocky habitats, which is more than often discontinuous across the environment, leading to average population densities of between 0.01â0.3 per km² in protected areas, where it is considered common, but restricted to suitable habitats. However, within continuous regions of suitable habitat, Klipspringer densities can reach fairly high population densities. For example, across a 9.6 km² area of escarpment in Ethiopia, Klipspringer densities reached 10â14 individuals / km². East (1999) described population densities of between 0.15 and 0.30 individuals / km² in Lilongwe (Malawi), the Karoo, Mountain Zebra and Royal Natal National Parks, as well as Giantâs Castle Game Reserve. The density in the Welgevonden Game Reserve in the Limpopo Province is 0.12 individual / km2 but this is considered an underestimate and the densities are in all probability much higher (M. Peel unpubl. data). Densities in the Lydenburg area, Mpumalanga Province reach 0.3 individuals / km2 (M. Peel unpubl. data). These regions are considered to contain fairly extensive areas of Klipspringer habitat. A conservative global population estimate of 42,000 individuals was projected by East (1999). Overall, the population is considered stable in protected areas and on private lands, but is likely to be decreasing in regions where small, disconnected populations are threatened by unregulated hunting and competition for resources with livestock. Provincial protected areas in the Western Cape Province do not have trend data for the species but the subpopulations in the Boland Mountain Complex are considered to be declining (C. Birss unpubl. data). However, Klipspringer are considered to persist with stable populations throughout the rest of their range in the Western Cape Province, including on private land (C. Birss pers. comm. 2016).
Within the assessment region, this species is well protected and its habitat is largely continuous. Thus, we suspect that there are over 10,000 mature individuals within the assessment region. Additionally, the conversion from livestock to wildlife ranching and game farming may be conserving and connecting the koppies that this species inhabits, so its net population trend may well be increasing, but this remains to be quantified. Finally, rocky habitats are unlikely to be transformed for expanding agriculture and settlements, though the quarrying of rocky outcrops for granite mining is a conceivable threat should this proliferate.
Threats
No major threats have been identified for this species across its range. However, outside of protected areas, subsistence hunting occurs at a low intensity. For example, localised poaching in the Boland Mountains of the Western Cape are suspected to be responsible for significant declines in that population (C. Birss unpubl. data). Similar local declines may also be occurring in areas of high human settlement. Small, isolated subpopulations are most vulnerable to hunting, and newborn lambs are vulnerable to predation by domestic dogs. These threats seem to be especially severe in Lesotho, where hunting for bushmeat, skins and traditional medicine may have virtually eradicated the species (Avenant 2004; N. Avenant unpubl. data). Resource competition with domestic goats may affect adult Klipspringers, and thus many of subpopulations may have been eradicated from areas in or nearby to settlements.
Climate change leading to the loss of forage resources may become an increasing threat to this species, especially in the western areas of the assessment region, due to an increase in the frequency and severity of drought (Erasmus et al. 2002), as well as range contraction and alteration of forage resources (Midgley et al. 2002). However, the mountainous regions in which this species inhabits may be refuges from climate change. Further research is needed to assess the net effect.
Uses and trade
Historically this species was hunted for its meat, and coarse pelage (which was often used as a stuffing in saddles) (Norton 1980), leading to its eradication in a number of regions across the assessment region, for example the Cape Peninsula in the 1930s.
Currently, the Klipspringer is locally used at a subsistence level for food and they have national commercial value for trophy hunting and live animal auctions. These uses, as long as they are well managed, are not expected to cause population declines as they are not utilised to a great extent. Klipspringer are advertised as a cryptic and sought after member of the âTiny Tenâ for hunting purposes, which includes other small antelope, namely the species of duiker (Philantomba monticola, Sylvicapra grimmia, Cephalophus natalensis), grysbok (Raphicerus spp.), Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), Suni (Neotragus moschatus) and Oribi (Ourebia ourebi), and as a bait-species for hunting Leopard. Klipspringer are fairly easy to hunt, due to their habit of utilising high vantage points for predator surveillance.
Wildlife ranching and the private sector may have generally had a positive effect on this species as it has been widely reintroduced onto private properties within its natural distribution range, although there are also indications that they may also have been introduced to areas beyond their known range (Power 2014). Regulation of translocation is required to prevent mixing of ecotypes. Small-scale translocation is encouraged between areas that may have been connected by an area of similar habitat type, within or adjacent to the bioregion of source, through which Klipspringer would have been able to move freely prior to anthropogenic partitioning of the landscape (Norton 1980). However, translocation of individuals into discretely distributed regions is discouraged, as this may interfere with the natural variability of the species, and its specialised adaptations to local environmental conditions (Norton 1980).
Conservation
This species occurs commonly within a number of formally protected areas within the assessment region. It occurs in lesser numbers in a large number of unprotected areas throughout its range which contain smaller, isolated areas of suitable habitat. Very large numbers are thought to survive on private farmland in Namibia, with strong potential for dispersal into South Africa â given that the Orange River can be forded. Klipspringer offer comparatively little competition to domestic livestock, and are thus commonly reintroduced onto private farmland. Although no direct conservation interventions are necessary at present, reintroductions into areas of its former natural range will help to restore a functioning population.
For example, during the 1930s, Klipspringer were substantially overexploited in the Western Cape, leading to their local extinction in the Cape Peninsula. In 1999, Table Mountain National Park (TMNP), Cape Nature and SANParks managed the successful reintroduction of 19 Klipspringer into the Cape of Good Hope section of TMNP, and later reintroductions were conducted in 2003 and 2005 where 9 and 10 additional animals were translocated directly onto Table Mountain, respectively. The individuals were sourced from three subpopulations at separate localities in the Western Cape. Routine Klipspringer counts take place across TMNP and populations are currently stable (Ferreira et al. 2010).
However, translocations should be considered carefully. Reintroduction of Klipspringer depends significantly on habitat suitability, as Klipspringer depend on the presence of rocky substrate, which provides them security from predators (Norton 1980). Norton (1980) recommends that equal numbers of male and female are translocated, due to their monogamous behaviour. Considering that this species has adapted so specifically to rocky terrain it is unlikely that they would be able to acclimate to non-rocky areas, even if they are not threatened by predators. The availability of suitable vegetation coverage and edible shrubs within the rocky habitat are also essential for successful Klipspringer populations. Under stressful conditions this species may utilise trees and grasses, but these do not make up their dietary preferences. Furthermore, this species has an extensive distribution, which exhibits clinal variation throughout its range and, as stated in the taxonomy notes, two subspecies are recognised in South Africa. In species exhibiting eco-typical variation across their range, ecotypes may be endemic and the maintenance of genetic diversity could be threatened by injudicious mixing of ecotypes (Birss & Palmer 2012). In the Western Cape Province, translocations of these species are managed and regulated through permits with specific consideration of the potential impact on the maintenance of genetic diversity. As such, facilitated movement of this species should be limited to within or adjacent to their bioregional boundaries.
Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:- Develop translocation regulations, which ensures the maintenance of both genetic viability and local adaptations.
- Provide incentives for landowners to create conservancies where the benefits of this species are shared.
Research priorities:- Current population trend estimates and distribution.
- Research into the management sustainability of this species on protected areas and wildlife ranches, and its species-specific value in the wildlife economy.
Encouraged citizen actions:- Report sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas.
- Landowners should ensure that disturbance of this species and its young is kept to a minimum, particularly with regards to domestic dogs.
