Red List of South African Species

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Data Deficient (DD)
Assessors: Claire Relton Vic Cockcroft Greg Hofmeyr
Contributors: Simon Elwen Ken Findlay Michael Meÿer Herman Oosthuizen Stephanie Plön Matthew Child
Reviewers: Claire Relton Vic Cockcroft Greg Hofmeyr

Rationale

There is no information pertaining to the population abundance of beaked whales within the assessment region, and they are generally considered to be naturally rare. However, there appear to be no current major threats to these species, although marine noise pollution, usually in the form of seismic surveys, navy operations and marine construction, as well as plastic pollution, have been identified as emerging and escalating threats to beaked whales. Anecdotal evidence suggests that beaked whales are more vulnerable to marine noise (particularly mid-frequency active sonar) than other cetaceans. The compounding influences of these threats, in association with other low-level threats, such as anthropogenic climate change, could potentially cause beaked whale population declines. With the exception of the Southern Bottlenose Whale, beaked whales in the assessment region are listed as Data Deficient, which highlights the need for additional research, specifically on assessments of abundance, changes in abundance, distribution and anthropogenic threats, including marine noise pollution. In other parts of the world there have been repeated instances of mass strandings of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales associated with mid to low frequency active sonar. It has been suggested that these sonar effects could extend to seismic surveys (applicable to all beaked whale species). Within the assessment region, only 26 strandings have been recorded. Thus, although this species is presumably common and abundant in South African waters, we list as Data Deficient until abundance and the effects of marine noise pollution can be investigated. Reassessments should follow when new data are available. The Southern Bottlenose Whale is the most abundant of all Ziphiidae species within South African waters, and is the second most commonly sighted whale. Data from the IWC circumpolar surveys places the national population at between 50,000 and 70,000 individuals with an estimated stable population trend and no major threat that could cause population decline. Although, similarly for the other beaked whales, marine noise pollution is considered a major emerging and intensifying threat, it is not projected to cause significant population decline of this abundant species. Thus, we list this species as Least Concern.

Regional population effects: Beaked whales are considered to be wide-ranging, seasonally migrating species. Those present within South African waters in summer presumably spend winters in the southern oceans, thus there are no barriers to dispersal, and rescue effects are possible.

Distribution

Mesoplodon densirostris is considered the most widely distributed species of this genus (Pitman 2002; Macleod et al. 2006), occurring across both temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans (Mead 1989) (Figure 2). Sightings and strandings are common around oceanic islands and archipelagos, for example Hawaii, the Society Islands, Mauritius and the Seychelles. As one of the most tropical beaked whales, this species often occurs within enclosed, deep, warm waters, including the Caribbean Sea, the Sea of Japan and the Gulf of Mexico. Within the assessment region, this species may utilise the warm waters of the Agulhas Current as a channel to the coast from tropical waters (Ross 1984). It is the beaked whale most commonly recorded stranded on the South African coastline, these events having a primarily warm temperate distribution (Hofmeyr et al. 2014).

Population trend

Trend

Mesoplodon densirostris is the most common species of its genus, and is considered fairly common within tropical waters (Reeves et al. 2003), however, no abundance estimates are available for this species within the assessment region. Similarly, there is also very little information pertaining to the population abundances and trends of M. grayi, M. hectori, M. grayi and M. layardii as they are rarely sighted at sea. Both M. grayi and M. hectori are, however, considered fairly common in New Zealand waters, but uncommon elsewhere in the southern hemisphere.

Threats

There appear to be no widely distributed major threats to beaked whales. The impact of potential threats are unknown but, considering that most Ziphiidae species are naturally rare, especially within the assessment region, they may have unsustainable impacts on local populations and further research is required. Potential threats are discussed below:

Anthropogenic noise pollution has become an increasing and well-known threat to beaked whales, as they appear to be more vulnerable to noise pollution than other cetacean species (Dalebout et al. 2005). A number of mass stranding events involving beaked whales have been attributed to seismic exploration and high-powered navy sonar (Simmonds & Lopez-Jurado 1991; Mignucci-Giannoni 1996; Frantzis 1998, 2004; Balcomb & Claridge 2001; Jepson et al. 2003; Cox et al. 2006). Although the exact mechanistic causes are not clearly understood, the formation of gas bubbles (Fernández et al. 2005), appears to be attributed to sonar activities and noise pollution (Cox et al. 2006). Jepson et al. (2003) described the physiological damage, including acute and chronic tissue damage, inflicted on beaked whales by the deployment of military sonar at the Canary Islands. Although other beaked whale species were impacted, Cuvier’s Beaked Whale was affected most severely. Due to the evidence of “bubble-like lesions”, the live stranding of a mother and calf I. pacificus in Taiwan may have been attributed to unidentified anthropogenic noise activities (Yang et al. 2008). Mass strandings of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales attributed to the use of active sonar by navy vessels has been documented on a number of occasions during the late 1990s and early 2000s in the Mediterranean (Frantzis 1998), the Bahamas (Balcomb & Claridge 2001), and Japan (Brownell et al. 2004). Additionally, a seismic survey is thought to be responsible for the stranding of two individuals in the Gulf of California (Malakoff 2002). It is believed that loud sounds may cause animals to panic and surface rapidly, thus resulting in rapid decompression; alternatively, the mid-frequency sonar activity may cause vibrations that form air bubbles in the individual’s tissues (Jepson et al. 2003). In 2004 a moratorium on naval activities in the Canary Islands was enforced by the Spanish government, and since then no mass stranding events have occurred in this area (Fernández et al. 2013). Within the assessment region, marine noise pollution is intensifying due to coastal industrial development, shipping traffic and energy exploration, and thus represents a potentially severe threat.

Plastic pollution is a large-scale and increasing problem in all marine environments. The ingestion of plastic marine pollution has been documented in several species of beaked whales, and may eventually lead to mortality as a result of choking, a reduction in appetite or starvation (e.g. Scott et al. 2001). A dead adult Blainville’s Beaked Whale found on a beach in southern Brazil in 1993 was found to contain a bundle of blue plastic threads within its primary stomach chamber (Secchi & Zarzur 1999). Based on the lack of food and parasites within its stomach and gut, it is likely that this individual had not fed for some time. Stranded True’s Beaked Whales have also been found to have consumed plastic pollution. 

Accidental entanglement of beaked whales in fisheries is widespread, particularly in deep-water gillnets, although the number of recorded mortalities is not high. However, Southern Bottlenose Whales have been caught as bycatch in driftnet fisheries in the Tasmanian Sea (Jefferson et al. 1993). Extensive gillnet and longline fishing practises throughout the ranges of many beaked whales may become an increasing risk to these species as a result of accidental entrapment and drowning. Deep water gillnets, especially those for billfish and tuna, are probably the most substantial threat to True’s Beaked Whale. Julian & Beeson (1998) documented the annual mortality of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales as between 22 and 44 individuals accidentally caught in drift gillnets off California.

The expansion of high-latitude fisheries, such as those directed at Antarctic Toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni), which are largely unregulated and illegal, threaten the food stocks available for large cetaceans such as beaked whales. There is substantial evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (Baum et al. 2003, 2005; Polacheck 2006; Sibert et al. 2006), over-fishing and the collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g. Jackson et al. 2001). Although the effects of anthropogenic fish exploitation and the subsequent ecosystem changes on beaked whales is considered to be fairly low in comparison to other cetaceans in the Pacific Ocean (Trites et al. 1997), the degree of impact associated with high-latitude fisheries world-wide is largely unknown and could result in population declines.

The marine-related threats associated with global climate change may pose unquantified and complex threats to beaked whales, particularly within cool temperate and cold Antarctic habitats (Learmonth et al. 2006). Increasing ocean temperatures may result in range shift or contraction (Learmonth et al. 2006); however, no direct predictions pertaining to the direction or size of these shifts in range are currently known. 

Unlike many whale species, beaked whales have not experienced large-scale historic or recent exploitation for meat or other products. This may be attributed to their general scarcity and inconspicuous nature, deep-sea distributions and/or deep-diving behaviour. Small-scale opportunistic takes from Sri Lanka of a species identified as “Bottlenose Whales” are probably I. pacificus (Dayaratne & Joseph 1993). Additionally, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales have been caught opportunistically by Japanese whaling operations directed at Berardius species, as well as in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Taiwan and South America as bycatch in other direct fisheries (Heyning 1989; Jefferson et al. 1993). Between 3 and 35 Z. cavirostris individuals are reported to have been caught annually in Japan during the 1950s (Omura et al. 1955); however, no direct takes of this species were reported two decades later (Nishiwaki & Oguro 1972).

Uses and trade

In general, beaked whales in the southern hemisphere are not utilised or traded commercially, although some small-scale subsistence utilisation of Blainville’s Beaked Whale by artisanal fisheries has been recorded. Additionally, a limited number of B. arnuxii and H. planifrons specimens have been taken for the purpose of scientific research (Jefferson et al. 1993). Historically, Z. cavirostris was hunted opportunistically off the coast of Japan during hunts specifically aimed at Baird’s Beaked Whales (Berardius bairdii) (Omura et al. 1955; Nishiwaki & Oguro 1972). Although commercial hunting of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales has ceased, products pertaining to this species are still for sale in certain Asian markets, suggesting that this species is either susceptible to accidental bycatch, or may be subject to unreported direct exploitation. Small-scale hunting of this species has also occurred in other regions, but there are no records of this within the assessment region.

Conservation

More research into the distribution, abundance, migration patterns, bycatch rate and diet of beaked whales is essential for the effective development of species-specific mitigation measures for these species in South African waters. Mitigation measures associated with anthropogenic marine noise is probably most vital for Ziphiidae species locally and world-wide. The Parties to the UNEP Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) suggested in 2004 that anthropogenic activities that produce high-intensity marine noise pollution should be avoided in areas of high Cuvier’s Beaked Whale concentration. Due to their cryptic nature, mitigation of noise pollution based on observation is likely to be ineffective for these species. Additionally, avoidance of beaked whale habitats in South African waters is currently challenging due to their wide distribution, and the lack of data pertaining to habitat preferences and geographical extent across this region.

Passive acoustic monitoring is a valuable technique used to detect marine mammals in order to modify marine activities so as to avoid the animals, decrease the amplitude or temporarily stop the source of sound when animals are within a critical distance (Barlow & Gisiner 2006). Although beaked whales are acoustically difficult to detect, all species are assumed to give off echolocation clicks, some may also produce whistles (Dawson et al. 1998; MacLeod & D’Amico 2006). However, Cuvier’s and Blainville’s Beaked Whales have been found to only produce echolocation clicks when they are several hundred metres deep. Generally, the clicks of Ziphiidae species are more narrow-banded than those of other marine mammals of a similar frequency, thus electronic filtering methods may be more effective than other methods (Barlow & Gisiner 2006).

Maintaining sightings records of beaked whales, during ship-based surveys directed at other species, is a valuable means with which to monitor the distribution and abundance of these cryptic and unknown species in South African waters.

All Ziphiidae species within the assessment region are listed either on Appendix I or II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Recommendations for managers and practitioners:
  • Critical beaked whale habitats, and areas of high beaked whale concentration should be identified, so as to effectively mitigate the effects of noise pollution.
  • Although species-specific monitoring is deemed unnecessary for Ziphiidae species in the assessment region, sightings data should be recorded during systematic monitoring of other cetacean species.
  • Establish a nationwide strandings network and databases (comprised of whale-watching operators, coastal protected areas, police stations, hotels, etc.) to gather and pool information.
Research priorities:
  • Population size and trend estimates.
  • Effects of marine noise pollution and plastic pollution on beaked whale populations.
  • The identification of high concentration areas in South African waters, including distributional limits, seasonal movements and diving behaviour.
  • Diet, reproduction and general biology
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Report strandings east of Mossel Bay to the Port Elizabeth Museum, and west of Mossel Bay to Iziko Museums, Cape Town.
  • Report sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP) to help with mapping geographical distribution.
  • Avoid using plastic bags.
  • Save electricity and fuel to mitigate CO2 emissions and hence the rate of climate change.

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,]
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