Red List of South African Species

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Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Jaco Barendse Inês Carvalho
Contributors: Claire Relton Ken Findlay Simon Elwen Michael Meÿer Herman Oosthuizen Stephanie Plön
Reviewers: Matthew Child

Rationale

The overall population of Humpback Whales is estimated to be increasing both globally and within the assessment region. For example, a Bayesian mixed model stock assessment for sub-stocks C1 and C2+3 estimated a post-2006 abundance of > 7,000 for each sub-stock, meaning that C1 is estimated at 85% of pristine level and C2+3 at 55% pristine. Similarly, shore-based surveys at Cape Vidal, KwaZulu-Natal Province, revealed a significant population increase between 9% and 11.5% from 1988 to 2002. This is very similar to increase rates of 11.4–12.2% calculated at the same site between 1988 and 1991, when the best population estimate in 1990 was 1,711 individuals (Findlay and Best 1996, Findlay et al. 2011). There are no major threats that are expected to cause population decline and there are estimated to be currently more than 1,500 mature individuals within the assessment region, which rules out the Near Threatened D1 category from the 2004 national assessment. Thus, we list this species as Least Concern.

On the other hand, the southern B2 subpopulation (assessed separately as they are largely localised to the Benguela system) is considered Vulnerable D1, due to subpopulation estimates of between 350 and 500 mature individuals in 2007, and recovery levels estimated to be much lower (< 15%) than most other southern hemisphere Humpback Whale populations. Without a historical baseline it is difficult to infer a recovery rate and population trend. However, the early depletion of Humpback Whales off the southwestern Cape by 1914 (1,299 were taken between 1909–1916) and no recovery in numbers until full protection (in 1963) suggests that this does represent a unique sub-group of whales that show maternally-derived site fidelity to the Saldanha Bay/St Helena Bay coastal migratory corridor/feeding ground areas in the southern Benguela upwelling system. There is evidence of entanglements and incidental mortalities in the fisheries around these areas and although it unlikely to have a severe impact on the subpopulation, they should be nevertheless be monitored to ensure no population decline.

In the southern hemisphere overall, there are an estimated 140,000 individuals and they are considered widespread with no major threats at present. However, there is a growing concern about seismic activity relating to hydrocarbon exploration off West Africa which can affect breeding behaviour, and this threat is probably also applicable in Mozambique. There is also the emerging threat of bulk sediment benthic phosphate mining off South Africa and Namibia, and the impacts of such activity on the ecosystem is yet unknown, but likely negative.

Regional population effects: Humpback Whales are highly migratory and wide-ranging. There are no barriers to dispersal, thus rescue effects are possible.

Distribution

Humpback Whales occur worldwide, within all major ocean basins (Clapham and Mead 1999), migrating seasonally from tropical to polar waters. Most subpopulations, with the exception of the Arabian Sea subpopulation (Mikhalev 1997), migrate from tropical breeding areas (commonly along continental coastlines or sheltered islands) to temperate and high latitude feeding regions (Clapham and Mead 1999), where waters are colder and productivity increases. Humpbacks are abundant throughout the Antarctic in summer south of the ice edge, but not within the pack ice zone (Dalla Rosa et al. 2008). In the winter, southern hemisphere whales aggregate into specific nearshore breeding areas in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, with two subpopulations extending north of the equator off Colombia in the eastern Pacific and in the Bight of Benin in the Atlantic (van Waerebeek et al. 2001). Some wintering grounds are fairly localised (for example, around island groups) and some are more diffuse, such as along the western coast of southern Africa and the southern coast of West Africa (Reilly et al. 2008).

Seven breeding stocks have been identified in the southern hemisphere, and aside from Breeding Stock (BS) A and D, there is evidence of substructure within the stocks, with subunits that are spatially and genetically isolated to varying degrees (Baker et al. 1994, Valsecchi et al. 1997).

Within the assessment region, the species occurs throughout South Africa’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). They use South Africa's coastal waters as migratory corridors, or as a summer feeding ground (BS B; Barendse et al. 2010). Humpback Whale populations are well studied, in comparison to other Balaenopterid species, and, for most breeding stocks, their migratory behaviour has been identified. Two breeding stocks utilise the waters around South Africa as wintering grounds:
  • Breeding Stock B (South–eastern Atlantic Ocean) is found along the west coast of Africa (Weir 2010, 2011) northwards to breeding grounds off West Africa (around Gabon), as far as the Gulf of Guinea, and south to South Africa (a precise southerly limit has not been identified). A small component of BS B animals (designated as B2) feeds within the Benguela upwelling (Angola, Namibia and South Africa) during spring and summer and some animals may remain in the area for prolonged periods (sometimes more than a month), rather than migrating directly to the Antarctic.
  • Breeding Stock C (South-western Indian Ocean) is located along the eastern coasts of South Africa and Mozambique (C1), as well as the eastern coasts of Madagascar (C3), Mayotte, the Comoros and other western Indian Ocean island groups. The extent of mixing of the C stock wintering off the coasts of Mozambique (the C1 substock), Madagascar (the C3 substock) and the western Indian Ocean island groups (the C2 substock) remains unclear (Reilly et al. 2008).
Although, some spatial or temporal mechanism appears to have caused some slight genetic differences between the B2 subpopulation and the broader population, they are not isolated and genetic exchange does occur (Carvalho et al. 2014). There is also evidence of multiple returns of the same whales and their offspring to the west coast, suggesting maternally derived site fidelity (Barendse et al. 2013, Carvalho et al. 2014). The geographic extent of the feeding is not known but may extend throughout the southern Benguela, with bigger aggregations at prominent coastal upwelling plumes.

Population trend

Trend

Humpback Whale stocks were heavily depleted throughout most of the southern hemisphere in the early 20th century by a combination of coastal catches in their wintering grounds, catches from land stations, and by pelagic fleets in their Antarctic feeding grounds. Approximately 220,000 Humpback Whales were taken in total, of which about 100,000 since 1940. Almost half of these latter whales consisted of illegal takes by the USSR (Zemsky et al. 1996, Allison 2006). Between 1908 and 1963, recorded catches outside the Antarctic (north of 40°S) have been: about 30,000 off the western coast of Africa (primarily Gabon and Angola); and nearly 20,000 off the eastern coasts of southern Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Mozambique and Madagascar) and in the western Indian Ocean. For Humpback Whales in the South Atlantic, western and northern Indian Oceans, there is strong population structure between Breeding Stocks A, B, C and X (Rosenbaum et al. 2009) and evidence of some substructure within the stocks, with subunits that are spatially and genetically isolated to varying degrees. There have been records of whales “switching” between the Indian and Atlantic Ocean wintering grounds but this is regarded as highly unusual (Pomilla and Rosenbaum 2005, Stevick et al. 2011).

Recent estimates of abundance for the majority of breeding stocks have been acquired using line-transect surveys as well as photographic identification capture-recapture methods. The rate of increase in abundance has been identified from time-series data. For five of these stocks, a rate of increase between 4.5% and 10.5% per year has been revealed (Leaper et al. 2008). The southern hemisphere estimate of 140,000 individuals (Jackson et al. 2015) is probably an underestimate, because there is currently no data for Stock F (South Pacific), or part of Stock B’s winter range for a discrete period. Additionally, the entire population does not always migrate to the wintering grounds identified, for example, results revealed an excess of males during a winter census (Reilly et al. 2008).

South of 60°S, in the Antarctic, summer estimates of abundance have been conducted by the International Decade of Cetacean Research, IDCR (presently Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research, SOWER). Since 1978 and 1979, three sets of circumpolar surveys have been completed, revealing abundance estimates of 7,100 (1978–1984), 10,200 (1985–1991), and 41,800 (1992–2004). These are likely to be underestimates of the southern hemisphere population, due to the fact that not all individuals migrate south of 60°S, and a large proportion of key summer feeding grounds north of this limit have not been assessed (for example South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands and the waters around Bouvet Island).

In the Indian Ocean, 8,000 Humpback Whales were reportedly caught from Stock C off South Africa and Mozambique between 1908 and 1915. Smaller catches took place off the KwaZulu-Natal coastline from 1920 to 1962, but significantly larger catches off Madagascar took place during two periods between 1937–1939 and 1949–1950 (Angot 1951). A certain degree of whaling in and around the Antarctic region also may have affected Breeding Stock C during the peak whaling period. Breeding Stock C has certainly recovered since the end of commercial whaling. IWC models suggest recovery of 65–96% pre-exploitation levels for the C1 stock, and Findlay et al. (2011), using shore-based surveys at Cape Vidal, calculated a significant population increase between 9% and 11.5% from 1988 to 2002. This is very similar to increase rates calculated at the same site between 1988 and 1991: 11.4–12.2%, with the best population estimate in 1990 being 1,711 individuals (Findlay and Best 1996). The population in the SW Indian Ocean is probably nearing carrying capacity and the rate of increase is expected to decline (Findlay et al. 2011). Johnston and Butterworth (2009), using a Bayesian mixed model stock assessment for sub-stocks C1 and C2+3, calculated a post-2006 abundance of > 7,000 each, meaning that C1 is estimated at 85% of pristine level and C2+3 at 55% pristine.

Subpopulation B declined considerably in the 19th and 20th centuries as a direct result of whaling in its wintering breeding grounds off the west coast of Africa. Between 1909 and 1960, approximately 30,000 Humpback Whales were documented as caught off the west coast of sub-Saharan Africa (Reilly et al. 2008). The most recent large Humpback whaling operation by Norwegian and French whalers in the waters off Gabon and São Tomé took more than 4,000 Humpbacks between 1951 and 1954, and subsequently 160 were caught off Gabon in 1959 in a final commercial whaling operation. The population dynamics of Breeding Stock B are largely uncertain, and although numbers may have increased somewhat, it is a unique assemblage, and fairly localised around a critical habitat (Benguela upwelling). Based on genetic dissimilarities, some suggest that two sub-stocks exist: specifically, B1 that spends winter off the west coast of Gabon, the Congo, Cabinda (Angola) and northwards to the Bight of Benin; and B2 with a wintering area that is currently uncertain, although may be south of that of B1 (Best 2011). Individuals off Namibia’s west coast have not shown matches with any other site (Elwen et al. 2014), thus supporting the existence of the B2 stock. There are also records of Humpbacks during summer near Cape Verde (Hazevoet et al. 2011), but it is not clear how these relate to the greater B Stock. Movements of 11 individuals that were tracked during migrations from West Africa to Gabon indicate that these stocks are not reproductively isolated (Barendse et al. 2011, Carvalho et al. 2014).

The complex population structure of Breeding Stock B and lack of data collected from the area between Walvis Bay and northern Angola has hampered accurate overall population estimates. The most recent estimate based on capture-recapture models for data collected from 2001–2007 of whales making use of the feeding ground along the west coast is about 500 animals (Barendse et al. 2011). Without a historical baseline it is difficult to infer a recovery rate. However, the early depletion of Humpbacks off the southwestern Cape by 1914 (1,299 were taken between 1909 and 1916) and no recovery in numbers (Best and Allison 2010) up to full protection in 1963 suggests that this does represent a unique sub-group of whales that show maternally derived site fidelity to the Saldanha Bay/St Helena Bay coastal migratory corridor/feeding ground areas (Barendse et al. 2013). Other Humpbacks from Gabon make use of more offshore migratory routes (Rosenbaum et al. 2014). Modelling done for IWC, based on historic catches and capture-recapture, suggests that for “B2” the estimated abundance relative to pristine levels may be between 4.5–12.4%, but there is much uncertainty about which model configuration is appropriate (Müller et al. 2011). This uncertainty has not changed much with the most recent synthesis (Jackson et al. 2015).

The Humpback Whale is better studied than other Balaenopterid species and migratory destinations are well known for some subpopulations. The IWC Scientific Committee suggests that globally Humpback Whale stocks have generally recovered to levels at or above those of their 1940 abundance. However, the IWC is yet to assess populations in the North Pacific and four of the seven southern hemisphere stocks, thus it is currently not possible to accurately compare the global population level to that of the historic 1940 level. However, there is little evidence to suggest that the global population remains below 50% of the 1940 threshold.

Threats

In the southern hemisphere overall, there are an estimated 140,000 individuals and they are considered widespread with no major threats at present (Jackson et al. 2015). While commercial whaling had a severely detrimental impact on Humpback Whale populations, since the banning of Humpback whaling in 1966, the global population has shown a significant recovery. There are, however, several small-scale populations that have not exhibited this increasing trend, such as the B2 stock.

Like other cetaceans, Humpback Whales are vulnerable to injury and death as a result of ship strikes or entanglements in fishing gear. Globally, Humpback Whales are the second most commonly recorded victims of ship strikes (Fleming and Jackson 2011). In the US Atlantic, between 1999 and 2003, seven Humpback Whales were reported seriously injured or killed as a result of ship strikes and 19 due to entanglements (Fleming and Jackson 2011). In the US Pacific (mostly Alaska) between 1999 and 2001, three Humpbacks were reported fatally injured by ship strikes and 13 were documented as seriously injured or killed as a result of entanglements (Fleming and Jackson 2011). Within the assessment region, Humpbacks are occasionally caught in shark nets off the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Fortunately, these individuals were all released alive. However, entanglement incidents of Humpback Whales in shark nets off the KwaZulu-Natal coast showed an increase of 15.1% per annum between 1990 and 2009 (Meÿer et al. 2011). Considering that this rate of increase is comparable to that of the increase in whale populations, the risk of entanglement is not considered to be a major concern hindering the recovery of Humpback Whale populations (Meÿer et al. 2011). In the majority of regions, the recent increase in Humpback Whale abundance suggests that anthropogenic disturbance and the resulting mortalities do not detrimentally impact population trends. However, a continued increase in whale numbers is expected to result in heightened levels of anthropogenic interaction, thus effective mitigation measures are necessary.

This species may become entangled in trap fisheries and rock lobster traps off the Western Cape, South Africa. Although increases in entanglements are again considered a possible result of increasing population numbers, entanglements may also be impacting the small subpopulation that frequents the west coast in spring and summer. The B2 subpopulation distribution does overlap with rock lobster offshore fisheries along the west coast of South Africa, for example Dassen Island is a specific hotspot of overlap. These fisheries are, however, managed spatially and temporally by an Operational Management Procedure, thus are not stagnant in their positioning and effect on the marine environment. Although there is evidence of entanglements and incidental mortalities at these fisheries, they are not considered a major threat to the subpopulation, but should be monitored accordingly, considering that these smaller subpopulations have not exhibited clear increases in their abundance levels, and thus should still be carefully monitored.

Energy development is also suspected to be a minor threat to this subpopulation. Considering that South African Humpback Whale populations migrate, and have been known to travel through oil and gas fields off South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Equatorial Guinea and the Congo, threats outside of the assessment region should also be considered. For example, a portion of the B2 subpopulation migrates to the Gulf of Guinea, where hydrocarbon development could be a threat to these individuals. The severity depends on oil and gas mining developments and the resultant industrial pollution along the west coast Humpback breeding and migrating areas. The main effect is disturbance due to seismic exploration and shipping activities, but the effects are currently unknown. For example, the population in Gabon rocketed despite the oil and gas industry – so evidence suggests that they may be resilient to hydrocarbon infrastructure. Similarly, they are suspected to not be as susceptible as Blue Whales to marine noise pollution. However, the resulting effects of noise pollution, mud and water discharges, alteration to the faunal composition, and accidental spillage from seismic surveys may increasingly impact critical breeding and calving habitats of this species (Cerchio et al. 2014). In particular, behavioural changes or displacement could negatively affect calf survival and reproductive success (Rosenbaum and Collins 2006). Additionally, wave and wind energy infrastructure could cause disturbance through the farms (permanent disturbance) and setting of underwater cabling (temporary disturbance). An emerging and potentially severe threat in South African and Namibian waters is allocation of rights for bulk sediment mining for benthic phosphates (Benkenstein 2014). The disturbance of sediments and extraction of minerals could potentially impact on the dynamics of nutrient cycling and productivity in yet unknown ways.

A recent decline in the abundance of krill in the Antarctic has been related to a rapid decrease in sea ice, which is linked to the effects of anthropogenic climate change (Nowacek et al. 2011). Increasing whale populations, following centuries of mismanagement and overexploitation, in association with a decline in food availability may lead to considerable inter- and intra-species competition for food in the Southern Ocean. This may result in large-scale disruptions to the feeding ecology of all southern hemisphere stocks which frequent Antarctic breeding grounds in summer (Nowacek et al. 2011).

Uses and trade

Large-scale harvesting of this species has ceased. Low-level hunting continues in a few places but not specifically in the assessment area. For example, the government of Japan announced plans to resume Humpback whaling in the Antarctic from the 2007/08 season, starting with an experimental catch of 50 animals per year under scientific permit. The impact of these catches on small unrecovered stocks of Humpbacks in Oceania that feed in the whaling grounds of Area V is not clear.

Shore-based whale watching in South Africa in 1995 delivered an estimated R5 million in indirect expenditure (Findlay 1997). In 2008, it was estimated that there were > 500,000 whale watchers in South Africa spending > 2.7 million $US directly and > 58.7 million $US indirectly (O’Connor et al. 2009). Boat-based whale watching increased by 14% between 1998 and 2008. Whale watching based on Humpbacks becomes more important during the migration off the KwaZulu-Natal coast.

Conservation

Humpback Whale populations declined dramatically during the large-scale whaling operations of the 19th and 20th centuries. In the southern hemisphere, Humpback Whales have been formally protected from commercial whaling since 1963. However, prior to this, whaling was spatially and temporally managed in the Antarctic. Some unwarranted Soviet whaling continued into the 1970s, but the final major catches ceased after 1968 (Reilly et al. 2008). Since then Humpback populations have shown a strong recovery.

Stringent and systematic legislation is necessary for hydrocarbon exploration and seismic surveys currently being conducted off the coast of Gabon, to ensure the conservation of threatened marine species and habitats during development and exploration projects (Rosenbaum and Collins 2006). Several marine sanctuaries in various countries protect Humpback Whales while they move through particular areas. Additionally, they are recorded in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals). Within the assessment region, no additional conservation measures have been identified for this species. However, continued research into the movements, population dynamics and threats faced by this species would assist in conservation management.

Several methods to reduce cetacean bycatch (particularly calves) in shark and fishing nets have been investigated, such as increasing the reflectivity of the net to cetacean sonar, and fitting nets with warning sound alarms. These interventions have not shown major success in reducing cetacean mortalities (Dawson 1991, Jefferson and Curry 1996). However, a reduction in fishing effort, and the periodic spatial and temporal closure of fishing nets, is expected to be more effective in reducing bycatch. Within the assessment region, the KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board has implemented methods to reduce shark net bycatch, such as limiting the length of nets, replacing nets with baited drumlines, installing nets with whale alarms, and herding animals away from nets to safer areas (Cliff and Dudley 2011). While not specifically designed as a conservation measure for Humpback Whales, they are expected to benefit from the action of lifting nets during the seasonal sardine run, when aerial surveys confirm the arrival of large shoals of sardines. These events usually coincide with the northward migration of Humpbacks along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline in June and July (Dudley and Cliff 2010).

A reduction in ship speed when traveling through high density whale areas, in order to give the whale adequate time to avoid the vessel, as well as to allow the operator time to navigate the vessel out of the whale’s path, may be an efficient means of reducing whale mortalities (Clapham 2002). This may however, prove difficult considering the general trend of increasing ship speed for transport efficiency. Secondly, by annually monitoring whale abundance and distribution, authorities may be able to redirect current ship and ferry routes away from high density areas, in order to decrease the rate of collision (Panigada et al. 2006).

The “Blue Economy” is an innovative action plan for the sustainable use of our oceanic resources, aimed at mitigating ecological damage and ensuring that marine biodiversity is protected. By integrating Humpback Whale conservation plans into the scope of the “Blue Economy” action plans, we can ensure a holistic approach to species and habitat management, while simultaneously ensuring economic growth and development.

Recommendations for managers and practitioners:
  • Systematic monitoring: design and implement a monitoring programme (acoustic and sightings) that can detect population size and trend estimates.
  • Develop best practice guidelines for seismic surveys and enforce regulations.
  • Develop mitigation plans for bulk sediment mining for benthic phosphates (Benkenstein 2014).
Research priorities:
  • The degree of mixing within Breeding Stock B and the exact location of the proposed B2 breeding ground, or whether there is more than one breeding stock.
  • Broad-scale sampling of the rest of West Africa, so that the uncertainties regarding the population structure and breeding and feeding locations for the west coast sub-population can be solved. This will require broader scale genetic and photo-ID sampling and possibly satellite tagging. Without this information, it is difficult to infer how vulnerable this subpopulation might be.
  • Research efficacy of strategies to reduce ship strikes.
  • Potential impacts of new industrial activities like bulk sediment mining linked to the “Blue Economy”.
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Whale watching operators could contribute to photo-ID catalogues and behavioural observations.
  • Report strandings to relevant authorities.
  • Participate as volunteers in Humpback Whale research projects.

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 year = {2010}
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,@article{13006,
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,@article{13006,
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 volume = {32},
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,@article{13006,
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,@article{13006,
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,@article{13006,
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,@techreport{13006,
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,@proceedings{13006,
 editor = {Leaper RE, Bannister JL, Branch TA, Clapham P, Donovan G, Reilly S, Zerbini AN.},
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,@proceedings{13006,
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,@book{13006,
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 author = {O’Connor S, Campbell R, Cortez H, Knowles T.},
 publisher = {Economists at Large},
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,@article{13006,
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 year = {2005}
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,@article{13006,
 author = {Rosenbaum H, Collins T.},
 journal = {Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington},
 pages = {425–433},
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 volume = {12},
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,@article{13006,
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 journal = {Molecular Biology and Evolution},
 pages = {355–362},
 title = {Microsatellite genetic distances between oceanic populations of the humpback whale (<i>Megaptera novaeangliae</i>)},
 volume = {14},
 year = {1997}
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,@techreport{13006,
 address = {Cambridge, UK.},
 author = {van Waerebeek K, Tchilbozo S, Montcho J, Nobime G, Sohou Z, Sohouhoue P, Dossou C.},
 institution = {International Whaling Commission},
 title = {The Bight of Benin, a North Atlantic breeding ground of a Southern Hemisphere humpback whale population, likely related to Gabon and Angola substocks.},
 year = {2001}
}
,]
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