Red List of South African Species

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Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Jeanetta Selier Michelle Henley Yolanda Pretorius Marion Garai
Contributors: Matthew Child
Reviewers: Dave Balfour Ian Whyte

Rationale

The total wild population within the assessment region is estimated at approximately 26,896 individuals of which 22,222 and 4,674 occur on state and private land respectively. Kruger National Park (KNP) (17,086 animals) and the agglomeration of private reserves adjoining KNP (3,930 animals) in South Africa contains the largest African Elephant subpopulation in the assessment region with an estimated 21,016 animals, of which 7,986 are inferred to be mature. Since 2006, elephant numbers have increased by approximately 41% within the assessment region. Furthermore, considerable effort has gone into translocating elephants to new properties over the past 30 years, thus expanding the current range (both extent of occurrence and area of occupancy). There are currently no major threats facing the wild elephant population in the assessment region. However, illegal ivory poaching, which is currently low to negligible, is anticipated to become a threat in the future. The Red List status of the African Elephant within the assessment region is thus maintained at Least Concern as elephant subpopulations regionally as well as locally are either stable or increasing and the minimum number of mature individuals is > 8,000. However, as a precaution, and due to the concern of increased ivory poaching within southern Africa, it is recommended that annual reviews of the African Elephant’s conservation status within the assessment region be done to keep track of trends relating to sharp increases in illegal killings both outside and within the region. Additionally, as existing elephant habitat is severely fragmented (see below) and the long-term resilience of the population depends on managing translocations between protected areas and developing migratory corridors across transfrontier conservation spaces, this species remains conservation dependent.

Regional population effects: Within the assessment region, the majority of the properties holding elephant are fully fenced and thus do not allow for range expansion or dispersal. There are currently no migratory populations in South Africa though two of the largest subpopulations, namely the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA) – which includes KNP – and the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (GMTFCA) – which includes Mapungubwe National Park – do undertake cross-border movements. The GLTFCA subpopulation moves between KNP, the adjoining private reserves to the west, Mozambique to the east and Gonarezhou to the north of KNP in Zimbabwe. The Tuli elephants (GMTFCA) move between Botswana, Mapungubwe National Park in South Africa and southern sections of Zimbabwe. Studies on the cross-border movement patterns have, however, not been running long enough to establish whether dispersal or range expansion is taking place. Tracking records from Elephants Alive show definite movement between Pafuri in the KNP and Gonarezhou in Zimbabwe as well as between KNP and Mozambique within the GLTFCA (Cook et al. 2015). Although it may still be too early to categorise any particular subset of the population as a source or sink population, it appears as if Limpopo National Park in Mozambique is being re-colonised from the Kruger population.

Distribution

African Elephants currently occur in 37 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. They have become Regionally Extinct in five countries since 1913, namely Burundi (1970s), The Gambia (1913), Mauritania (1980s), Swaziland (1920), and Sierra Leone (2009), while their current status in Senegal, Somalia and Sudan is uncertain (UNEP, CITES, IUCN, TRAFFIC 2013). Although large tracts of contiguous elephant range remain in parts of central, eastern and southern Africa, elephant distribution is becoming increasingly fragmented across the continent.

Elephants likely occurred at some or other time in the past over most of South Africa, including even the arid north-western parts (Boshoff et al. 2015). However, almost all of South Africa’s elephants had been hunted by the 1890s, with only three, or possibly four, relict subpopulations remaining within the country (Carruthers et al. 2008). Since then, elephants in South Africa have undergone a period of sustained growth due to the proclamation and fencing of national parks and reserves. Between 1979 and 2001, over 800 elephants were translocated to approximately 58 reserves in South Africa (Garaï et al. 2004). These newly introduced elephant subpopulations have been characterized by high growth rates (Carruthers et al. 2008; van Aarde et al. 2008). At present, elephants occur in all the provinces but the Northern Cape and the Free State, and within approximately 79 reserves of which 21 are state owned or managed, and 59 private properties (ESAG 2015). No elephants occur within Lesotho. Elephants in Swaziland were reintroduced to the country in the 1980s and 1990s. Elephants now occur in two parks, namely Hlane National Park and Mkhaya Nature Reserve (ESAG 2015). In recent years, elephants have sporadically ventured into Malolotja National Park from Songimvelo Nature Reserve in South Africa. Prior to the 1980s, the area available to elephants decreased, but within the last 20–30 years elephant range within South Africa has been increasing, through reserve expansion and the introduction of elephants onto private properties (Slotow et al. 2005; Selier 2007; Druce et al. 2008). Even though there has been a significant expansion of the elephant range within the assessment region, the population is fragmented and most subpopulations are small and fully fenced.

Habitat available to elephants is estimated to have increased from approximately 30,455 km2 in 2007 to approximately 33,840 km2 in 2013 (ESAG 2015). This is only an estimate as limited data are available on the area sizes of private properties.

Population trend

Trend

On the African continent, estimates of the total African Elephant population range between 436,305 and 650,000 individuals (CITES, IUCN and TRAFFIC 2013). Recently, the southern African range states have become the last stronghold of the African Elephant, holding close to 55% of the known elephants on the continent, approximately 270,299–364,925 elephants (African Elephant Database). East Africa holds approximately 28% and Central Africa 17%. In West Africa, less than 2% of the continent’s known elephants are spread out over the remaining 13 elephant range States. In the late 1970s, southern Africa’s elephant populations were recovering from historical lows due to overhunting in the early 20th century. That recovery has continued, and elephant numbers in this region are now considerably higher than they were in the late 1970s, and indeed higher than in any other African region. Within southern Africa, Botswana holds by far the largest population in the sub-region and on the continent, while Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe also hold large elephant populations. While numbers appear to be increasing in Namibia and South Africa, there appear to be some initial declines in some of the subpopulations in Zimbabwe and Zambia, and subpopulations in Mozambique are presently being severely poached and are showing steep declines (CITES, IUCN and TRAFFIC 2013; Booth 2014).

South Africa holds approximately 6.3% of the total African Elephant population (UNEP, CITES, IUCN, TRAFFIC 2013) and has the third largest elephant population in southern Africa. The elephant population is fragmented and subpopulation sizes vary from very small (one individual) to very large (such as the KNP; Scholes & Mennell 2008). Fences restrict movements of all but a few elephant subpopulations in the assessment region (van Aarde et al. 2008). Subpopulations not fully fenced include iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Ithala Game Reserve, the GMTFCA, and KNP, of which the latter is linked to the GLTFCA. The largest subpopulation currently is that of KNP (17,086 animals) (S. Ferreira pers. comm. 2016) and the adjoining agglomeration of reserves to the west of the KNP (3,930 animals) with a total population estimate of 21,016 elephants. Currently, more than 72% of the properties in South Africa have fewer than 75 elephants (ESAG 2015), and most of these subpopulations occurring on small and medium-sized fenced properties are highly managed to prevent habitat degradation (Slotow et al. 2005). Subpopulations with more than 150 elephants account for approximately 5% of the total South African population (ESAG 2015). Thus, even precluding intensively managed subpopulations on small reserves, leaves 21,016 individuals within the greater KNP system, of which 7,986 are estimated to be mature based on a 38% mature herd structure (Owen-Smith 1988). Metapopulation management is not implemented among small and medium-sized reserves, but is important for retaining the genetic diversity within the national population.

The estimated annual population growth rate, particularly for small subpopulations in South Africa, exceeds the maximum theoretical growth rate of 7% (Calef 1988; van Aarde et al. 2008). Annual growth rates for South African subpopulations range from -0.6 to 25.5% per year, where, of the 29 estimates of annual population growth rates in South Africa, only two were negative and 16 were higher than 7% per annum (van Aarde et al. 2008). Synchronised breeding and skewed age structures can cause high, short-term spurts in annual population growth rates which are unlikely to persist in the longer term (van Aarde et al. 2008). Elephant numbers in South Africa increased by approximately 26.8% between 2002 (14,071 elephants) and 2006 (17,847 elephants). Since 2006 there has been an approximate increase of 41% in South Africa’s elephant population. The average annual growth rate for the South African elephant population is estimated at 6.9% for the period 2001 to 2013 (ESAG 2015) despite the KNP annual growth rate having dropped to 3.5% between 2006 and 2012. At the time when culling stopped in the mid-1990s, the annual growth rate for KNP was estimated at 6.1% (Ferreira et al. 2012). Elephant subpopulations on private land have been increasing at 7.2% per annum (ESAG 2015). As most private properties have, or are in the process of, implementing immuno-contraception and other measures to reduce reproduction (for example, vasectomy), this trend is likely to stabilise in future. The elephant subpopulation of GMTFCA is increasing at < 2% per annum (Selier et al. 2014). The only subpopulation where there appears to be a continued decline in numbers is the relict population in the Knysna forests (Carruthers et al. 2008). This subpopulation is not considered to be viable.

The total elephant population of Swaziland is small, with only two subpopulations totalling approximately 32 elephants. All subpopulations are fully fenced and managed. Elephants within Malolotja National Park are most likely individuals crossing over from Songimvelo Nature Reserve in South Africa.

Threats

Poaching and the illegal ivory trade are currently the major global threats to elephants. The loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by ongoing human population expansion and rapid land conversion is a current and ongoing threat to elephants within Africa. A specific manifestation of this trend is the reported increase in human-elephant conflict, which further aggravates the threat to elephant populations. According to the CITES, IUCN SSC African Specialist Group, TRAFFIC International (2013) report, the poaching rate of 7.4% in 2012 remains at an unsustainably high level as it exceeds natural population growth rates of usually no more than 5%. Central Africa consistently shows the highest overall poaching levels, in contrast with southern Africa which shows the lowest overall levels (CITES et al. 2013). Across Central Africa and in parts of East Africa a greater than 60% decline in elephant numbers in the past 10 years has been suggested (Maisels et al. 2013).

There are currently no major threats facing wild elephant subpopulations in the assessment region. However, illegal poaching, which is currently low to negligible, is anticipated to become a threat in the near future. The following bulleted statistics, collated from various sources, highlight the potential poaching threat to elephant populations within South Africa by first outlining continental trends and then narrowing the potential threat down to the assessment region in particular:
  • There has been a 45% decline in elephant range over 28 years, with at least 70% of their remaining range falling outside of protected areas (Blanc et al. 2007). Illegal killing levels have become unsustainable since 2010, peaking in 2011 with over 100,000 lost between 2010 and 2012 (Wittemyer et al. 2014).
  • These mortality rates exceed the maximum annual reproductive rate of 7% and with continuation of these trends we are experiencing a continent-wide decline in elephant numbers of approximately 3% (Wittemyer et al. 2014).
  • Elephants in southern Africa now make up more than 50% of the continental total compared to only 21% of the total elephant population more than 20 years ago (Douglas-Hamilton 2009).
  • Poaching incidents have consequently progressed with time from West to Central to East Africa with southern African states experiencing more recent incidents. Poachers are expected to intensify their activities in areas that will afford them the best catch-per-unit effort. The KNP elephant population,
  • although the largest in South Africa, is at risk due to the ongoing poaching of both species of rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum and Diceros bicornis) within this region, the lack of adequate law enforcement on the Mozambique side, coupled with the substantial area over which poachers can gain access to resources within the KNP.
  • At present, illegal offtake of elephants is still considered low in South Africa, with only three incidents of poaching reported for 2013 and two in 2014. However, in 2015 a sudden increase in poaching was observed with 19 elephants poached in KNP alone in September and October 2015 (S. Ferreira pers. comm. 2015). It is thus anticipated that poaching may become a threat to elephants in South Africa in the future.
  • These threats are severe on the continental scale and, since South Africa is a stronghold for elephant conservation, this national status can act as an indicator of increasing severity across the continent. Hence this assessment should be re-evaluated regularly.
Another threat may be unregulated trophy hunting. Even though trophy hunting of elephants is limited, and it is unlikely to have a deleterious effect on the population as a whole, large-tusked individuals are in high demand for trophy hunts and these animals are becoming increasingly scarce as a consequence. Regulatory mechanisms are thus required to prevent the over utilisation of large-tusked individuals (Selier et al. 2014).
Minor threats to elephants within South Africa, especially those on small reserves being intensively managed, include:
  • The impact of fencing and natural resource manipulation, such as the provisioning of perennial artificial water supplies, on the movement patterns and intensity of habitat use by elephants, which could lead to habitat degradation.
  • The potential long-term effects of contraception and other restricting measures on elephant social structure and behaviour within small reserves.
  • A decline in genetic diversity due to the lack of a national metapopulation management plan within the network of small reserves.
While contraception can control population growth, one of the tools to reduce population sizes, namely translocation, is currently limited due to a lack of suitable new areas or reserves to which elephants can be introduced. The manipulation of natural resources, such as the provision of artificial water supplies all year round, together with fencing, are concerns in larger subpopulations as these affect the movements of elephants and the intensity of resource use by elephants, potentially leading to habitat degradation. Habitat degradation in small fenced reserves, in conjunction with severe droughts, may affect these small fenced populations if elephants cannot be relocated in time. Within South Africa, only two elephant subpopulations can move naturally as fences restrict movements elsewhere. Metapopulation management is not implemented among small reserves, but is important for retaining genetic diversity within the national population. Small family units translocated to various properties throughout the country with no metapopulation management plan in place could lead to inbreeding depression and a loss in genetic diversity (van Aarde et al. 2008).

Uses and trade

In South Africa, elephants are utilised for trophy hunting, photographic tourism and recreation (for example, captive individuals) in accordance with the sustainable use policy environment prescribed by the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 (NEMBA). Trade can be described as commercial at local, regional, national and international scales. Photographic tourism remains the predominant form of utilisation within the assessment region. Trophy hunting is limited, and it is unlikely to have a deleterious effect on the population as a whole. Regulatory mechanisms are however required to prevent the over utilisation of large-tusked individuals (Selier et al. 2014).

Increasing trends in offtake due to trophy hunting (for international and limited national markets) have been observed in certain reserves/regions within South Africa. Local trade involves mainly exchanges between properties through translocations, but is limited. The Swaziland elephant population is included in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), while the South African population has been listed on Appendix II since 2000. A trade ban on the international trade in ivory was implemented in 1989. However, South Africa and three other southern African countries were allowed a once-off sale of stock piled ivory in 2007 (van Aarde & Ferreira 2009). There was a significant increase in the legal and illegal international trade in carvings and elephant feet from 2002–2011, but in no other elephant products (CITES trade database, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK). There are approximately 126 elephants in captivity (Wentzel & Hay 2015).

Conservation

Since 2008, elephants in South Africa have been managed in accordance with the National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in South Africa (Government Gazette No. 30833, 29 February 2008). The species is listed as protected in terms of section 56 of NEMBA, and various provincial ordinances and Acts provide further legislative protection. Permits are therefore required to undertake a variety of activities in relation to elephants (for example, hunting and other forms of direct use). Since the implementation of the National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in South Africa, no wild elephants have been exported to captive facilities abroad. However, the same does not apply to Swaziland, whom recently exported wild elephants to zoos in the USA.

The following agreements are in place within the assessment region:
  • CITES: South Africa’s elephant population was downlisted to Appendix II in 2000, which means that, according to Article IV, elephants and derivatives can be exported if the CITES Scientific Authority of South Africa deems it non-detrimental to the long term survival of the species. At present, ivory is listed as Appendix I and can only be exported as part of a hunting trophy but cannot be traded.
  • SADC Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement (1999). This protocol seeks to establish a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of wildlife resources in the SADC region.
  • Southern Africa Regional Elephant Conservation and Management Strategy and the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity. The purpose of the strategy is to facilitate coordination, collaboration and communication in the management of elephant populations across the region so as to conserve elephants and expand their range within historical range, forming as contiguous a population as possible across southern Africa, and, in so doing, realising their full potential as a component of wildlife-based land use for the benefit of the region and its people.
  • CITES Elephant Action Plan, 15th meeting of CoP Doha, Qatar 13–25 March 2010.

The following legislation is in place within South Africa:
  • Elephants are listed as protected in terms of section 56 of NEMBA, due to the international trade in the species and its high conservation value. All activities relating to the direct use of elephants (for example, translocation, hunting, selling, etc.) cannot be undertaken without a permit issued by the relevant Provincial Management Authority.
  • The National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants: to ensure that elephants are managed in a way that safeguards their long-term survival within the ecosystems in which they occur or may occur in the future, to promote broader biodiversity and socio-economic goals that are socially, economically and ecologically sustainable, and to enable the achievement of specific management objectives of protected areas.
  • Local management plans to effectively manage elephants.

The following actions or interventions are needed:
  • Establishment and effective management of transfrontier conservation areas, to allow for the freer movement of elephants (Druce et al. 2008). This includes the implementation of transboundary elephant management plans and the management of transboundary populations on a population level.
  • The establishment and effective management of corridors between large game reserves within the assessment region (sensu Douglas-Hamilton et al. 2005; van Aarde & Jackson 2007; Jachowski et al. 2013; Perre et al. 2014; Selier et al. 2015). This includes developing wildlife corridors between private reserves and/or provincial or national parks to allow for movements.
  • Revise the National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in South Africa to be more in line with the latest scientific thinking and better address current management challenges (Selier et al. in press).
  • Apply strict protocols and regulatory mechanisms in reserves where elephants are trophy hunted to not only ensure sustainable quotas but specifically to protect large-tusked individuals from being over-exploited.
  • Legislative action, such as employing sanctions against countries that have proved to have no control over fuelling the illegal trade in wildlife products (for example, Mozambique and China).
  • Stricter legislative measures to prevent illegal ivory from being smuggled through and out of South Africa.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:
  • Effective community consultation and participation is necessary in corridors and reserves to decrease poaching rates and to uplift local economies.
  • More effective implementation of the National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in South Africa, including the implementation of management plans on both state owned and private land.
  • Implementing immuno-contraception and other measures to reduce reproduction (for example, vasectomy), to stabilise small- and medium-sized subpopulations on fenced reserves and limit possible detrimental effects on habitat.
  • The species would not benefit from captive breeding programmes. Instead, promote corridors and linkages to increase areas available for elephant movement.
  • Develop a metapopulation management plan for small reserves to ensure the long-term resilience of the population. This includes developing a habitat sensitivity map of ecosystems/habitats in which the reintroduction of elephants would be detrimental.

Research priorities:
  • The long-term effects of contraception on elephant social structure and behaviour.
  • Collating poaching incidents throughout neighbouring countries (illegal shooting and poisoning in Mozambique and Zimbabwe specifically) to follow trends and ensure that such incidences can be curbed by stricter legislation or preventative measures such as fencing sections for stricter control of human exploitation.
  • Similarly, investigating the effects of rhinoceros poaching and the associated increased human presence due to poachers and security measures, on the behaviour and stress levels of elephants in areas within South Africa where the species coexist, could help to plan reintroductions and translocations.
  • Understanding the importance of ‘Damage Causing Animals’ or ‘Escaped or Roaming Animals’ as corridor establishers, dispersers and/or economic burdens or gains in areas where they are found.
  • Continue research on the effects of closures of water points on both vegetation and the dynamics of the affected elephant subpopulations.

Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Citizens can report any suspect activities in our protected areas as well as report all mortalities.
  • Landowners should create conservancies and corridors for this species and engage local communities to create sustainable, wildlife-based rural economies.
  • Report sightings of free-roaming herds outside protected areas on virtual museum databases (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially sightings of large-tusked individuals.
  • Provide detailed documentation and meticulous record keeping where Damage Causing Animal incidences occur on private land.
  • Report sightings of large tree-nesting birds within reserves for monitoring the effects of elephants.

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 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {276--282},
 title = {Corridor use and streaking behavior by African elephants in relation to physiological state.},
 volume = {167},
 year = {2013}
}
,@inbook{12392,
 address = {Johannesburg, South Africa.},
 author = {Scholes  and Mennell },
 booktitle = {Effects of elephants on ecosystems and biodiversity},
 editor = {Kerley GIH, Landman M, Kruger L, Owen-Smith N, Balfour D, de Boer FW, Gaylard A, Lindsay K, Slotow R.},
 pages = {101--147},
 publisher = {Wits University Press},
 title = {Elephant Management. A Scientific Assessment for South Africa},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {McComb K, Baker L, Moss C.},
 journal = {Biology Letters},
 pages = {26--28},
 title = {African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species.},
 volume = {2},
 year = {2006}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {McComb K, Moss C, Durant SM, Baker L, Sayialel S.},
 journal = {Science},
 pages = {491--494},
 title = {Matriarchs as repositories of social knowledge in African elephants},
 volume = {292},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Perre F, Adriaensen F, Songorwa AN, Leirs H.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {448--457},
 title = {Locating elephant corridors between Saadani National Park and the Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area, Tanzania},
 volume = {52},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Plotnik JM, De Waal FB, Reiss D.},
 journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
 pages = {17053--17057},
 title = {Self-recognition in an Asian elephant.},
 volume = {103},
 year = {2006}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Roca AL, Georgiadis N, O’Brien SJ.},
 journal = {Nature Genetics},
 pages = {96--100},
 title = {Cytonuclear genomic dissociation in African elephant species.},
 volume = {37},
 year = {2005}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Roca AL, Georgiadis N, Pecon-Slattery J, O’Brien SJ.},
 journal = {Science},
 pages = {1473--1477},
 title = {Genetic evidence for two species of elephant in Africa.},
 volume = {293},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Selier J, Slotow R, Di Minin E.},
 journal = {Biotropica},
 pages = {389--397},
 title = {Large mammal distribution in a transfrontier landscape: trade-offs between resource Availability and human disturbance},
 volume = {47},
 year = {2015}
}
,@techreport{12392,
 address = {Pretoria, South Africa.},
 author = {Selier SAJ.},
 institution = {Centre for Wildlife Management. University of Pretoria},
 title = {The social structure, distribution and demographic status of the African elephant population in the Central Limpopo River Valley of Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Selier SAJ, Page BR, Vanak AT, Slotow R.},
 journal = {The Journal of Wildlife Management},
 pages = {122--132},
 title = {Sustainability of elephant hunting across international borders in southern Africa: A case study of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area.},
 volume = {78},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Slotow R, Garaï ME, Reilly B, Page B, Carr RD.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {23--32},
 title = {Population dynamics of elephants re-introduced to small fenced reserves in South Africa.},
 volume = {35},
 year = {2005}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Smit IP, Ferreira SM.},
 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {2172--2181},
 title = {Management intervention affects river-bound spatial dynamics of elephants},
 volume = {143},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Smit IPJ, Grant CC, Devereux BJ.},
 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {85--99},
 title = {Do artificial waterholes influence the way herbivores use the landscape? Herbivore distribution patterns around rivers and artificial surface water sources in a large African savanna park},
 volume = {136},
 year = {2007}
}
,@book{12392,
 address = {Trykkeri AS, Norway},
 author = {UNEP, CITES, IUCN, TRAFFIC.},
 publisher = {United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Printed by Birkeland},
 title = {Elephants in the Dust – The African Elephant Crisis. A Rapid Response Assessment},
 year = {2013}
}
,@inbook{12392,
 address = {Johannesburg, South Africa},
 author = {Scholes  and Mennell },
 booktitle = {Elephant population biology and ecology.},
 editor = {van Aarde RJ et al.},
 pages = {84--145},
 publisher = {Wits University Press},
 title = {Elephant Management: A Scientific Assessment for South Africa},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {van Aarde RJ, Ferreira SM.},
 journal = {Environmental Conservation},
 pages = {8--10},
 title = {Elephant populations and CITES trade resolutions},
 volume = {36},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {van Aarde RJ, Jackson TP.},
 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {289--297},
 title = {Megaparks for metapopulations: Addressing the causes of locally high elephant numbers in southern Africa.},
 volume = {134},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Vanak AT, Thaker M, Slotow R.},
 journal = {Biological Conservation},
 pages = {2631--2637},
 title = {Do fences create an edge-effect on the movement patterns of a highly mobile mega-herbivore?},
 volume = {143},
 year = {2010}
}
,@techreport{12392,
 author = {Wentzel I, Hay A.},
 institution = {Wildlife Protection Unit, NSPCA.},
 title = {The welfare status of elephants in captivity in South Africa.},
 year = {2015}
}
,@phdthesis{12392,
 author = {Whyte, I.J.},
 school = {University of Pretoria},
 title = {Conservation management of the Kruger National Park elephant population},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{12392,
 author = {Wittemyer G, Northrup JM, Blanc J, Douglas-Hamilton I, Omondi P, Burnham KP.},
 journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
 pages = {13117--13121},
 title = {Illegal killing for ivory drives global decline in African elephants.},
 volume = {111},
 year = {2014}
}
,]
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