Rationale

This subspecies is widespread and common throughout the assessment region. For example, there are an estimated 3,763–8,907 individuals (2012 count) in Kruger National Park (KNP) alone. Within the natural range, the mature population size (assuming a 70% mature population structure) is estimated to be at least 14,392–17,993 animals on 386 protected areas and ranches (counts between 2012 and 2015). The population is thought to be stable or increasing through reintroduction across its range (and outside of its natural range) on private lands. While globally the subspecies is thought to be declining slowly, there are no major identified threats that could cause range-wide decline or any evidence for decline within the assessment region. Thus we retain the Least Concern listing. Potential local threats, including bushmeat poaching and hybridisation with exotic subspecies through unregulated translocation, should be quantified. Additionally, increasing spells of drought due to climate change represent an emerging threat to this subspecies as stochastic population models predict that Waterbuck will be one of the species at highest risk from future increase in droughts periods. Such threats should be monitored.

Regional population effects: Dispersal through the transfrontier parks, such as the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area and the Greater Kruger Transfrontier Park is suspected. Anecdotal evidence suggests that this species evades fence boundaries by dispersing along waterways.

Distribution

The former range of this species expanded across much of sub-Saharan Africa; however, overexploitation led to large-scale range contraction and restriction to protected areas and areas with extremely low human density (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016).

Kobus e. defassa has a much broader distribution compared to that of K. e. ellipsiprymnus, occurring across much of central and eastern Africa, extending somewhat into western Africa to Senegal (although they are now extinct in The Gambia) (Spinage 2013). The Waterbuck extends from East Africa, where its range overlaps with that of the Defassa Waterbuck, through Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and into South Africa (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). In Namibia, this species was previously restricted to the Caprivi Strip, but has been more recently introduced onto private lands in the north of the country (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Significant range contraction occurred historically in Zimbabwe and due to the civil war in Mozambique, but recent reintroduced into parts of their former range have taken place (Skinner & Chimimba 2005).

Within the assessment region, the Waterbuck was previously restricted to the savannah woodlands of northeastern South Africa, with the range extending westwards along the Limpopo River, and reaching its southern limit around Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park in KwaZulu-Natal. However, recent introductions onto protected areas and private lands outside of their native range, as well as reintroductions throughout their former range, have occurred across a number of provinces in South Africa. For example, while it occurred historically in the northern bushveld areas of North West Province (Rautenbach 1982) (in which it has been reintroduced), it has been introduced in other areas of the province where a number of escapees from ranches have created free-roaming subpopulations (Buijs 2010; Power 2014). In Swaziland, their native range was limited to the northeast of the country, however they have been introduced onto reserves in the middleveld and lowveld regions of Swaziland (Skinner & Chimimba 2005).

Habitat View more ecological information

Population trend

Trend

Threats

Globally, Waterbuck have been eliminated throughout much of their range from hunting (Spinage 2013), and are thought to be declining (especially Defassa Waterbuck) at a slow but significant rate (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). Within the assessment region, however, this subspecies is well protected. Waterbuck are prevalent on many private farms and tend to be increasing in many areas. There are local declines with drought impacts, which result in a change in habitat quality and forage availability and may be exacerbated by climate change in the future. Waterbuck are susceptible to poaching due to their sedentary nature and association with agricultural lands and several population declines, some of them severe, have been documented in other parts of its range (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016). Within the assessment region, bushmeat hunting, often with domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), along protected area boundaries may also cause local declines. For example, it is quite heavily impacted by poaching in Borakalalo Nature Reserve, North West (Nel 2015).

Uses and trade

Waterbuck are used for food, trophy hunting and live animal sales. The proportion of animals from wild populations and from private ranches is unknown. Trophy hunting, if well controlled, will pose no threat to the species. The live trade will increase its area of occupancy as it is relocated to private reserves.

Conservation

The majority of the population lives in protected areas within the assessment region. Important subpopulations of Waterbuck occur in KNP and Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, and there are also extensive numbers on private land (East 1999). As the effects of drought associated with climate change are unpredictable and not controllable, no specific interventions are necessary for this subspecies at present. However, protected area expansion, especially transfrontier protected areas, will benefit Waterbuck in the assessment region by facilitating dispersal and thus allowing for adaption to climate change. Biodiversity stewardship schemes that protect wetlands and associated vegetation will also conserve key resource areas needed by this subspecies.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:

• This species requires ongoing monitoring and possible improvement of assessments on private land to provide better indication of population trends.
• Extra-limital subpopulations in formally protected areas should be removed, such as in Molopo Nature Reserve, North West (Power 2014).

Research priorities:

• Basic ecological research is needed, as most of the existing literature are studies done during the 1960s to 1980s on Defassa Waterbuck, thus detailed information on the Waterbuck is lacking.
• Studies quantifying the severity of putative threats to enable conservation planning.

Encouraged citizen actions:

• Landowners should create conservancies for this species and engage local stakeholders to create sustainable, wildlife-based rural economies.
• Report sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially of free-roaming herds outside protected areas and private lands.