SANBI

Rationale

Caracals are widespread within the assessment region. They are considered highly adaptable and, within their distribution area, are found in virtually all habitats except the driest part of the Namib. They also tolerate high levels of human activity, and persist in most small stock areas in southern Africa, despite continuously high levels of persecution over many decades. In some regions it is even expected that Caracal numbers might have increased. Thus, the Least Concern listing remains. The use of blanket control measures over vast areas and the uncontrolled predation management efforts over virtually the total assessment region are, however, of concern. In the North West and Limpopo provinces, concerns have also been raised about hunting and live-removals. Ongoing monitoring, education efforts, and the continuous propagation of mitigation measures such as exclusion and precautionary techniques, the removal of proven damage-causing animals (DCAs), and sustaining sufficient levels of natural prey diversity and biomass on farmlands, should be a priority to prevent possible national declines. Attention must also be paid to the paucity of existing data about Caracal, especially on rangelands in southern Africa.

Regional population effects: Namibia, Botswana and South Africa offer an important stronghold for Caracal. Radio-collared Caracals have been documented moving between Namibia and South Africa across the western fence line of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) (see Melville et al. 2004), and they have been camera trapped along the Molopo River along the South AfricaâBotswana border (see Power 2014). Hence, these countriesâ borders are no doubt permeable to Caracal transboundary movements, which may include both individual forays as well as actual dispersals. In the other transfrontier conservation areas around and inside South Africa it is also plausible that some individuals will move between Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe, and between South Africa and Lesotho; this has, however, not been documented. Further research is needed.

Distribution

Caracals are widely distributed across Africa, Central Asia, and southwest Asia into India (Avgan et al. 2016). The historical range of the Caracal mirrors that of the Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and both coincide with the distribution of several small desert gazelles (Sunquist & Sunquist 2002).

Within the assessment region, although Caracals were amongst the species that were persecuted heavily by colonial settlers and then impacted further by crop and livestock farmers in the early part of the 20th century (Pringle & Pringle 1979; Stadler 2006; Bothma et al. 2009), Pringle and Pringle (1979) mentioned increasing numbers of Caracals in eastern areas from c. 1970.

Currently, the species occurs in all South African provinces, as well as in Lesotho and Swaziland. Historically, Caracals were rare in the western Kalahari (Lloyd & Millar 1983), and apparently absent from the Highveld grasslands of the North West Province (Rautenbach 1978). Caracals have responded well to game farming in especially the latter province, and today are present on over 95% of farms in the bushveld landscapes, and on at least three quarters of farms on grasslands in the North West Province (see Thorn et al. 2011; Power 2014). Accordingly, there has been an increase in area of occupancy (AOO) of the Caracal throughout the North West and western parts of the Limpopo Province (Thorn et al. 2011), while its extent of occurrence (EOO) has, from 2000 to 2010 (Thorn et al. 2011), and even up to 2013 (Power 2014), remained unchanged.

The species was absent or present in low densities in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg during the 1960s, and individuals were brought in from the then Cape Province (see Barnes 1991). Since then, Caracal numbers have seemingly increased throughout the whole KwaZulu-Natal Province (Barnes 1991), barring the eastern coastal belt (Rowe-Rowe 1992; Skinner & Chimimba 2005).

The population today is probably contiguous and more widely spread over most of the assessment region. Skead (1980) reports that the southern Cape populations were, during dry years, regularly augmented from influxes from Karoo populations, so there may also be significant interchange at the biome level. Caracals, like most felids, do not migrate, but young individuals can disperse over extensive areas (Norton & Lawson 1985; S. Hanekom pers. comm. 1990).

Habitat View more ecological information

Population trend

Trend

The Caracal is common in South Africa and southern Namibia where removed individuals seem to be quickly replaced by other individuals. No published data exist, however, to say that the species is common outside of parts of southern Africa; in fact, in comparison with the situation in the assessment region, Caracals are considered rare throughout most of their range (Avgan et al. 2016).

Early scientifically-gathered information on density estimates is virtually non-existent and makes comparison with newly gathered information, using relatively modern techniques, difficult. For the first time, benchmark information useful for future comparison has only recently been gathered, in South Africaâs northern provinces (Thorn et al. 2011; Power 2014). This information suggests that, at least in the North West Province, the speciesâ AOO has regionally increased (when compared to the information put forward in Rautenbach 1978), though, owing to differences in methodology (i.e. camera traps in later years), the significance of this is called into question. Notwithstanding, it is fact that records of this species were only forthcoming from this part of the Highveld grasslands well after the late 1990s (Transvaal Provincial Administration Records; Newbery 1995). Elsewhere, hearsay information and the proliferation of records do also support an eastward range expansion in KwaZulu-Natal. This was first observed by Rowe-Rowe (1992) when he compared his data with the earlier records of Pringle (1977) and Rowe-Rowe (1978); today, further expansion can be noticed when recent MammalMap records are compared with those indicated in Rowe-Rowe (1992).

Caracal densities (as inferred from home range size) can vary markedly between habitats, depending on environmental variables such as the size, type, density and composition of prey available, habitat characteristics, and the degree of persecution by humans (Avenant 1993). For example, home ranges of males in Postberg Nature Reserve (PNR; part of the West Coast National Park) (Avenant & Nel 1998) were larger than those of males in the Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP) (Moolman 1986), but smaller than those of males on farms around the MZNP (Moolman 1986). In turn, the home ranges in all three of these study areas were markedly smaller than that of a single male tracked in the mountains in the Western Cape (Norton & Lawson 1985). Similar differences were observed in female home ranges, with home ranges in a farming area, southwest Western Cape (Stuart 1982), significantly larger than at both MZNP (Moolman 1986) and PNR (Avenant & Nel 1998). The smaller home range size of females in the PNR could reflect the high density of rodent prey, the most common item in Caracal scats and the only prey group whose density and biomass significantly correlated with its percentage volume in Caracal scats at PNR (Avenant & Nel 1998). Fitting into the normal felid pattern, male home ranges are larger than those of females, and typically overlap with a number of female home ranges (Moolman 1986; Avenant 1993; Stuart & Stuart 2013). While sexual dimorphism, and the fact that the larger males may prefer larger prey species, which are less densely spaced than the smaller prey species, are still debated as a possible reason for this observation, Avenant (1993) found, within each of the four study areas mentioned above (Stuart 1982; Norton & Lawson 1985; Moolman 1986; Avenant 1993), strong positive correlations between home range size and standardised metabolic needs (SMN, where SMN = body weight^0.75).

Avenant and Nel (1998) estimated a density of 0.23â0.47 Caracal / kmÂ² in PNR, while Moolman (1986) estimated a density of 0.38 Caracal / kmÂ² for MZNP. A density of 0.3 Caracal / kmÂ² is thus a reasonable estimate for a high-density population, should blanket extrapolations be required. Large differences may, however, occur on farmland where Caracals are actively hunted, and territoriality and social structure may differ from that in protected populations (du Plessis et al. 2015). Furthermore, in areas where Caracals and Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) co-occur, Caracal densities may be markedly lower in some habitats where they are excluded by Black-backed Jackals and vice versa (Ferreira 1988). Current information shows that, in such areas, Caracal seems to be the dominant species in more rocky and mountainous terrain and Black-backed jackal more dominant on open plains areas; this situation may, however, be impacted by the type and combination of prey items, as well as the persecution history of the area (see du Plessis 2013). Compensatory breeding is a factor that may explain the Caracalâs resilience to persecution (Avenant & du Plessis 2008; du Plessis 2013), but this has not been confirmed for this species.

Considering the possibility of such varying density estimates, a robust population estimate would be difficult to attain based on the current lack of data. However, given their wide distribution in South Africa, that Caracals seems to prefer rocky or mountainous terrain (such as at PNR and MZNP), but are very adaptable and can occur in many different vegetation types (e.g. they also occur in the Kalahari), the total Caracal population in the assessment region could be anywhere between 45,000 and 150,000 individuals, depending on local densities (0.15â0.5 individual / km²) and occupancy.

Threats

As Caracals are causing significant damage in the small livestock (van Niekerk 2010; also see du Plessis 2013), cattle (Thorn et al. 2012; Badenhorst 2014) and game farming (Power 2014; Schepers 2016) industries, they are subject to persecution through hunting, trapping and, in some areas, even poisoning. Stuart (1982) recorded that over the years 1931â1952, an average of 2,219 Caracals / year were killed in control operations in South Africaâs Karoo ecosystem. In a similar environment, Namibian farmers responding to a government questionnaire reported killing up to 2,800 Caracals in 1981 (Nowell & Jackson 1996). Cattle farmers in the North West Province have indicated Caracal as a serious DCA (Badenhorst 2014), and game farmers in the Limpopo Province currently consider Caracal as one of the three major predators of game (Schepers 2016). In the North West Province, around 50% (N = 198) of surveyed game farms complained about the Caracal as a problem animal (Power 2014). The annual persecution rate reported by farmers in the North West Province was 1.1 Caracals / 100 km² (Thorn et al. 2012), which compares favourably to the scale estimated for the then Cape Province of 1.6 Caracals / 100 km² (Brand 1989). This rate may be higher in areas like the southern Free State where stock losses due to predation are reported to be amongst the highest in South Africa (van Niekerk 2010).

Brand (1989) found that Caracals were responsible for the loss of up to 5.3 domestic stock / 100 kmÂ² per year and recorded 0.02â1.6 Caracal(s) killed or captured / 100 kmÂ² per year in the former Cape Province of South Africa. In more recent surveys, livestock farmers have indicated that Caracal is responsible for between 9% (in Mpumalanga) and 36% (in the Western Cape Province) of small stock predations (van Niekerk 2010) and 11% of cattle calf predation in the North West Province (Badenhorst 2014). Although these figures may need further investigation to ascertain actual predation accuracy, they provide a good reflection of livestock farmersâ perceptions that Caracal is an important DCA and is indicative of the danger of persecution that this species is likely facing (du Plessis et al. 2015). Severity of depredation by Caracal may be related to a number of factors, including the type, composition and density of prey, the geography of the specific area, the husbandry techniques, and the season (i.e. the reproductive season of the livestock animals, natural prey and the Caracal themselves) (see Avenant & du Plessis 2008; Stuart & Stuart 2013; du Plessis 2013; Pohl 2015; Teichman et al. 2015). This information should be taken into account when farmers plan their husbandry and management programmes. For instance, the risk of losing small stock to Caracal may increase when natural prey numbers are low â such as during the seasons when prey densities are naturally at their lowest, and or on properties where prey densities are low because of management practices. The risk may then further increase if this âleanâ season overlaps with the lambing season and/or the period when Caracals have their own young, and or when the stock (lambs) spend more time in the Caracalâs preferred habitat (â rocky areas/âkliprantjiesâ and kopjes) (Avenant & du Plessis 2008). Other precautionary techniques, such as the use of livestock guarding dogs (LGDs), kraaling (where feasible), electric fencing, and a range of others, and even better when using a combination of these (see du Plessis 2013), can potentially decrease the number of stock losses and therefore also the persecution on the Caracal population. Other long-term beneficial management actions may be to remove only the damage-causing individuals (with the help of e.g. poison collars) and leaving the non-damage-causing territorial cats to lessen the time that non-territorials cats spend (and feed) in the area (Avenant & du Plessis 2008; Avenant et al. 2009; du Plessis 2013).

With more farms in fewer (larger farmersâ) hands, as well as with South Africaâs progressive labour legislation for farm workers that have led to fewer farmers being able to keep more employees on their farms (for cost and logistical reasons), fewer workers are patrolling the farms searching for predator signs, repairing fences and protecting livestock. This, together with many farmersâ hopeless perceptions that the stock-loss problem is just increasing, contributes to the ongoing illegal practise of poisoning with, for example, Poison 1080 (Sodium Fluoroacetate) and Two-Step (carbamate insecticide found in the pesticide Temik) over alarmingly large areas (see van Niekerk 2010; du Plessis 2013). This and other blanket control methods are not only suspected to be ineffective in the long term, but also have severe detrimental impacts on the whole ecosystem (see du Plessis 2013).

Uses and trade

varying from US$600â2,000, depending on the hunting company, the type of hunt, and the type of weapon used (rifle or bow). In some provinces, such as the Eastern Cape and Free State, only a hunting license is necessary to do so if the Caracal hunt takes place on own property, but a permit is needed when hunting on someone elseâs property; in the Western Cape and North West provinces, hunters now have to apply for a special Caracal hunting permit, even if hunting on their own property.

In their struggle to combat stock losses, some farmers hunt Caracal themselves, make use of DCA or âspecialistâ hunters to remove Caracal (and Black-backed Jackal) from their properties (Photo 2), or they send some of their workers for DCA courses which deal with a fairly large variety of precautionary and removal techniques (van Niekerk 2010; du Plessis 2013; Badenhorst 2014; Schepers 2016). These training and hunting businesses have now become small industries, and advertisements/banners on the internet and huntersâ vehicles have become commonplace. When making use of hunters, a farmer will typically cover the hunterâs fuel (km) tariff plus pay an amount per DCA removed; the cost for one Caracal removed is in the order of R700. When a Caracal is caught or hunted, the carcass is often available for the farm workers to skin and eat.

An international trade exists for Caracals to be kept as pets, especially in the USA, Russia, Canada and the Netherlands (see advertisements openly available on the internet). Although the number of kittens exported is considered to be low, there are indications that this trade may be increasing (e.g. in the North West Province, no kittens were exported in 2015, 10 were exported in 2016, and within the first three months of 2017, four were already exported; North West Provincial Government records). The average price for a kitten is US$1,500â2,000, but can go up to US$7,500. These cats all seem to come from legal breeding centres (M. Drouilly pers. obs. 2014). Some provinces, including North West and the Free State, do confiscate such animals if owners do not have the correct permits to keep them.

The capture and removal of wild Caracals for import into captivity and trade is currently considered a minor threat, but the situation is monitored. A typical fine for keeping an animal not protected by Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) legislation is R750. On farms and ranches where predators are lethally controlled, it often happens that a female is killed, leaving the kittens on their own. These kittens are then sometimes adopted as pets (Moolman 1986; M. Drouilly pers. obs. 2012â2015; N.L. Avenant pers. obs. 1996â2016), and it is thus not uncommon for farming families to raise orphaned Caracals.

Apart from a few stories in the folklore (e.g. Greaves & Clement 1993), Caracals have apparently not been used for specific cultural purposes by the Basotho (Avenant 2004; Moffett 2010) or other people in South Africa (N.L. Avenant pers. obs. 1989â2016). They are, however, eaten by a number of cultural groups, including the Basotho, Xhosa and mixed farm workers in the Free State, Nama Karoo and Succulent Karoo (N.L. Avenant pers. obs. 1989â2016; M. Drouilly pers. obs. 2012â2015).

Conservation

Caracal populations within their African range are included on Appendix II of CITES. In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is protected from hunting in about half of its range states (Nowell & Jackson 1996). In Namibia and South Africa, however, Caracals are considered DCAs, which permits landowners to kill the species, with varying levels of restrictions.

In the Western Cape, landowners need a specific permit that can be issued for six months by CapeNature to kill the species. No permits are issued for the use of helicopters, gin traps (which are illegal) and soft traps. In the other provinces of South Africa, an annual DCA permit is issued with unlimited species numbers to hunt at night and for the use of a helicopter. Methods include cage traps, dogs and gin traps; the Norms and Standards of the Department of Environmental Affairs for hunting and removing DCAs is currently under review and looks to encourage more humane methods/outlaw non-humane practises. In the Free State and KwaZulu-Natal, property owners do not need a permit to hunt Caracals on their own property, though in the North West Province one does require one now (but this may prove hard to enforce). In the North West, Caracals are inadvertently caught in cage traps set for routine DCA work aimed at the more important TOPS species (for example, Leopards) and many of them are simply relocated nearby.

Limpopo Province authorities are becoming concerned as to the status of the species in the province, and would want to accord it special protection there (A. Van Wetten, LEDET, pers. comm. 2015); the North West Province has done likewise, though with less concern (R.J. Power pers. obs. 2016).

Although Caracals are present in most national parks and provincial nature reserves, there are no protected areas specifically established for this species.

Caracals probably do respond well to reintroduction, as is evident in how they have seemingly colonised, or recolonised, the province of KwaZulu-Natal after introductions to the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg and Ithala Game Reserve (see Pringle 1977; Rowe-Rowe 1978; Barnes 1991; Rowe-Rowe 1992). Introduction is, however, not considered a priority intervention for this species.

Persecution on livestock and game farms remains the largest threat for Caracal. Proposed interventions and management recommendations are listed in Table 5, and discussed below.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: There is currently no species management plan for this species, but many researchers and the Predation Management Forum of South Africa (PMF) are working towards a more sustainable and best practise plan (Avenant et al. 2006; de Waal 2009; PMF website; PMF pers. comm. 2017). Public awareness, education of landowners, increased collaborative research with landowners, conservation managers and researchers on board, and continuous feedback to especially livestock and wildlife owners, are all necessary to address the current predation conundrum. Livestock and wildlife owners can take cognisance of the fact that such large, focussed, initiatives are already in progress. Examples include the CanisâCaracal Programme (University of the Free State and NMB); the national Predation Management Information Centre (UFS and PMF); the Scientific Assessment on the issue of predation on small livestock in South Africa (PredSA; Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and PMF); Neil Viljoen Predation Management (assisted by the PMF); Cape Leopard Trust; Endangered Wildlife Trust, Carnivore Conservation Programme; Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF); Cat Conservation Trust; and an increasing number of studies by the universities of Cape Town, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Pretoria, Stellenbosch, NMMU, and others.

At this stage, and with the knowledge that circumstances may differ markedly between areas/farms, the following general recommendations can be made to land managers (based on du Plessis 2013 and N.L. Avenant pers. obs. 1989â2016 and interpretation of the results from a number of research studies, also from other research fields, e.g. Avenant 2011):

Healthy natural prey populations, and temporal planning of farm management around the time of year when these densities are high or low, can significantly reduce the risk of losses; this includes when and where the stock lamb, and where they forage during which time of the year.
Be aware of the Caracalâs behaviour, such as habitat preferences, the peak times when Caracalsâ energy needs are highest (for example, when females lactate/have young), their social structure, and the important role that territorial individuals can play in limiting the time that non-territorial cats spend on the property (following Avenant 1993, it has been proposed that non-territorial cats are more prone to take the easy and ânot-naturalâ prey; an idea currently further under research).
Search for and apply methods (e.g. poison collars) that only take out the culprit (in other words, strive towards a situation where territorial cats do no or relatively little damage and where they can assist in the management process by excluding non-territorial animals); be aware that blanket control methods may only offer short-term relief on the property, and will most probably lead to escalated problems/costs for the owner, surrounding owners and the ecosystem in future.
Search for and apply the best precautionary methods that suit the situation and management style.
Use a combination of methods (and the steps indicated here), and change/rotate them to prevent habituation.
Be aware that success requires dedication and continuous hard work, and that there is no single method that will provide a solution on its own.
Know that relief from your current situation will most probably not happen overnight and that the situation will gradually change; persevere with your intended management plan.
Strive to get as large an area (most properties) as possible to follow the same holistic management principles.
Be aware that areas that have both Caracal and Black-backed Jackal present are in for a larger challenge.
Invite researchers and conservation officials to be involved with research on your farm, and in such way find out what works best for your specific situation.

Nature conservation agencies should strive to work together with land managers, but also support the PMF in such a way where all or most of the Caracal-killed records, as well as the stock- and wildlife-loss records, are sent to the Predation Management Information Centre at the University of the Free State (see http://www.pmfsa.co.za/home/detection-prevention/lethal-management-method/hunting-dogs/item/271-predation-management-information-centre-now-operational), and in that way assist to get an overall picture of what happens where, what is the resulting effect of management efforts in that area, and also to assess the impact of predator control on this speciesâ populations.

Research priorities: As an important damage-causing species in large parts (> 75%) of southern Africa, more research is needed on how to manage the species, how the species is reacting to different management strategies, and how to mitigate conflicts with human livelihoods, especially in the livestock and game farming industries. Additionally, we can benefit from a regional focus on the status and ecology of the species, especially from the northern parts of the assessment region.
More generally, research is needed on:

Population size and trends (this can be promoted by citizen science, especially in areas where densities are low or where very specific research questions are asked).
Impact of livestock and game farming on Caracal population size, breeding ecology and diet, compared with undisturbed large natural areas (du Plessis et al. 2015).
Impact of humanâpredator conflict management strategies on Caracal numbers, reproduction and general ecology.
Landscape genetics and determination of source/sink areas.
At a national scale, the number of Caracals killed during predator-control operations.
Spatial ecology of the species with size of home range in relation to prey density and human activity.
Effects of sympatric apex predators on the population size, survival and behaviour of Caracals.
Predatory impact of the Caracal on game ranches.
Non-lethal control methods for the Caracal (i.e. scent avoidance, bio-fencing, etc.).
Evidence for range expansion/contraction.
Development of an App to record livestock depredation and mortality of Caracal on farmlands (aimed at livestock and game farmers in particular).

The following research projects are currently ongoing:

CanisâCaracal Programme (CCP), run by the African Large Predator Research Unit, UFS: aims at finding solutions to reduce the widespread impact of predation on the livestock industry (national). Contact details: Prof. H.O. de Waal, Department of Animal, Wildlife and Grassland Sciences and African Large Predator Research Unit (ALPRU), PO Box 339, Internal Box 70, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa. Email: dewaalho@ufs.ac.za.
Predation Management Information Centre (PMIC): collating and analysing reliable information on predation and predation management methods, which will be made available continuously to a management information system (MIS). A team of dedicated staff members handles calls and enquiries. Experts in the team are available to provide advice to farmers. The centre is also responsible for the management of information and resources. Aim: to generate information that can be used to reduce the widespread impact of predation on the livestock industry. A collaborative initiative between the UFS and the PMF. Contact details: Email: PredationMC@ufs.ac.za. Telephone: 051 401 2210 (on week days from 08:00â16:00).
Scientific Assessment on the issue of predation on small livestock in South Africa (PredSA): a collaborative initiative between the NMMU and the PMF. Contact details: Prof. Graham Kerley, Centre for African Conservation Ecology (ACE), PO Box 77000, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, 6031, South Africa. Email: graham.kerley@nmmu.ac.za.
National Museum (NMB) and Centre for Environmental Management (CEM), UFS: investigating the ecology of Caracal, sympatric carnivores and prey species; investigating the effect of DCA and other management actions on ecosystem integrity (with the aim to contribute towards a more sustainable DCA management plan over larger areas). Contact details: Dr Nico L. Avenant, Department of Mammalogy, National Museum, 36 Aliwal Street, Bloemfontein. Email: navenant@nasmus.co.za.
Karoo Predator Project: this project, run by the University of Cape Town (Department of Biological Sciences and the Centre for Social Science Research), aims to understand the socio-ecological mechanisms behind farmerâpredator conflicts in the Karoo. Concerning Caracals in particular, the project is investigating the general ecology of the species on small-livestock farms. Contact details: Prof. Justin OâRiain, Department of Biological Sciences, John Day Zoology Building, University of Cape Town. Email: Justin.ORiain@uct.ac.za. Marine Drouilly, PhD candidate, Department of Biological Sciences, John Day Zoology Building, University of Cape Town. Email: drouillymarine@yahoo.fr; website: https://karoopredatorproject.wordpress.com.
Cape Leopard Trust (CLT): studying the ecology of species such as Caracal; involved with humanâpredator conflict management. Research areas: Cape Town and Boland Mountains, Cederberg Mountains, Namaqualand. Contact details: Helen Turnbull, CEO. Email: contact@capeleopard.org.za; website: http://www.capeleopard.org.za.
Urban Caracal Project: this project is run by the University of Cape Town, The Cape Leopard Trust, University of California (Santa Cruz and Los Angeles), South African National Parks, the City of Cape Town, and private landowners in Cape Town. This project aims to 1) establish baseline information â distribution, population size, health status of individuals â about the Caracal population in the Cape Peninsula; 2) evaluate the effects of urbanisation on the behaviour, movement patterns, diet and genetic health of Caracals; and 3) assess the threats to survival for Caracals. Contact details: Dr Laurel Serieys, Project Coordinator. Email: Caracal@capeleopard.org.za; website: www.urbancaracal.org.
Cat Conservation Trust: involved in ex situ breeding, awareness and research programmes on four wild cat species, including the Caracal, in the Eastern Cape Karoo in South Africa. Contact details: Richard and Marion Holmes. Email: info@karoocats.org; website: http://www.karoocats.org.
Landmark Foundationâs Leopard & Predator Project: based in the Eastern Cape, and advocate non-lethal control measures of species such as Caracal. Contact details: Dr Bool Smuts, Director. Email: bool@landmarkfoundation.org.za; website: http://www.landmarkfoundation.org.za.

Encouraged citizen actions:

Report sightings on virtual museum/social media platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas. Caracal sightings are very rare, so the use of camera traps by citizen scientists is encouraged as more data can accrue this way than through direct observations.
For the farmers and hunters controlling the species, it is crucial that they report all the dead animals (trapped, shot or poisoned), as well as their livestock losses due to the species, with photographs and GPS coordinates, to the national Predation Management Information Centre (PMIC; email: PredationMC@ufs.ac.za).
Livestock farmers can get on board by encouraging scientific research on their properties.
Livestock farmers can actively monitor and record the effectiveness of the management methods they are implementing. Of more value would be if these management methods are designed, implemented and monitored on a sound scientific basis (through liaison with the scientific community) and if the results are shared and published in peer-reviewed literature as a way to promote accuracy, reliability and application.

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 author = {Deacon F.},
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,@phdthesis{3847,
 author = {Moolman LC.},
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 title = {Aspekte van die ekologie en gedrag van die rooikat Felis caracal Schreber, 1776 in die Bergkwagga Nasionale Park en op die omliggende plase. M.Sc. Dissertation},
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,@techreport{3847,
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,@article{3847,
 author = {Teichman KJ, Cristescu B, O’Riain J, Hodges KE.},
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 year = {2015}
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,@phdthesis{3847,
 author = {van Niekerk HN.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {The cost of predation on small livestock in South Africa by medium-sized predators. M.Sc. Dissertation.},
 year = {2010}
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,]

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