Red List of South African Species

Alternatively, Explore species
| National Red List categories | Partners |
Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Liaan Minnie Nico Avenant Jan Kamler Hennie Butler Dan Parker Marine Drouilly Jurie du Plessis Emmanuel Do Linh San
Contributors: Claire Relton Samantha Page-Nicholson Matthew Child Erika Schulze
Reviewers: Liaan Minnie Nico Avenant Jan Kamler Hennie Butler Dan Parker Marine Drouilly Jurie du Plessis Emmanuel Do Linh San

Rationale

The Black-backed Jackal is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and is widespread. It is considered a generalist canid with an opportunistic lifestyle and occupies most habitats within the assessment region. Black-backed Jackals are the dominant predators of livestock in the assessment region and are thus widely persecuted in an attempt to reduce population size and associated livestock losses. However, despite centuries of population reduction efforts, Black-backed Jackals still persist on farmlands and in most conservation areas. Therefore, these population control efforts appear ineffective, but may result in temporary and localised reductions in population size. Further, lethal control in combination with other management practices may result in local extirpations. Although no accurate population estimates are available, we estimate that there are more than 10,000 individuals in the assessment region, and anecdotal evidence suggests that Black-backed Jackal population size and distribution may have increased over the last 15 years. Therefore, due to this resilience, irrespective of concerted control efforts, we infer that this species will persist, and list it as Least Concern.

Regional population effects: The Black-backed Jackal’s range within the assessment region is continuous with the rest of its southern African range and we suspect that dispersal across geo-political boundaries occurs. Black-backed Jackals appear to have few dispersal barriers (Ferguson et al. 1983; Minnie 2016) and may disperse over long distances, exceeding 100 km (Bothma 1971; Ferguson et al. 1983; Humphries et al. 2016; Minnie 2016). Thus, there is no reason to believe that trans-regional and trans-boundary movements will decrease in the future.

Distribution

The Black-backed Jackal is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa (Loveridge & Nel 2004). It occurs in two geographically isolated populations: one in East Africa and another in southern Africa. The two populations are separated by the Mozambican Gap (from the Zambezi river to Tanzania; Kingdon 1977). According to Ansell (1960), Black-backed Jackals are absent from much of equatorial Africa. This disjunct distributional pattern occurs in other arid-adapted African endemics (e.g. Aardwolf Proteles cristatus and Bat-eared Fox Otocyon megalotis; Loveridge & Nel 2004), and suggests that these two populations were once connected during the drier conditions of the Pleistocene (Loveridge & Nel 2004, 2013; Skinner & Chimimba 2005). The northern subspecies, C. m. schmidti, occupies southern Ethiopia, southern Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, and northern Tanzania. The range of the southern subspecies, C. m. mesomelas, extends from the southern part of South Africa to the southwestern part of Angola, northern Botswana, central Zimbabwe, and southwestern Mozambique (Hoffmann 2014). Recent molecular research suggests that these two subspecies may in fact warrant species status owing to divergence in mitochondrial lineages, but additional research on a wider geographical scale is required in support of this hypothesis (Atickem et al. 2017). However, if this hypothesis is supported and the current and “new” species exhibit reduced distributional ranges and lower population densities, it may require a revision of their conservation status (Atickem et al. 2017).

In the assessment region, Black-backed Jackals historically occurred throughout Swaziland, in several locations in Lesotho, and throughout South Africa – except for the Southern Coast Forests around Knysna, Western Cape Province (Skinner & Chimimba 2005), and the Highveld of the former Transvaal Province until the early 1950s (van der Merwe 1953).

Currently, they occur throughout most of Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa. They are widespread across most conservation and livestock farming areas (Loveridge & Nel 2004). The previous assessment indicated that they did not occur along the coast and the immediate interior between Storms River and Port Elizabeth. However, based on predator–livestock conflict reports from small stock farmers (Minnie 2009; DEDEA problem animal control register 2011 – G. Ferreira pers. comm. 2012), it seems that the population is expanding into this area. They appear to be absent from highly developed cities, towns and settlements. However, abundance in urban areas may be underestimated due to a lack of survey effort. Recently, vocalisations have been recorded in residential areas in Midrand, Gauteng Province (Z.J.K. Madikiza pers. comm. 2014). Other generalist canids (e.g. Red Foxes Vulpes vulpes: Soulsbury et al. 2007; Coyotes Canis latrans: Gese & Bekoff 2004) persist successfully in urban areas (i.e. they are urban exploiters). This may also be the case for Black-backed Jackals as, similar to several other canids, they are dietary generalists with a high reproductive output and are behaviourally flexible. These attributes may assist them in becoming successful urban exploiters.

Black-backed Jackals experience local fluctuations in density with the possibility of local extirpations based on the intensity of predator control programmes (Beinart 1998). Their local densities may also fluctuate according to the presence of other sympatric predators, most notably Caracal (Caracal caracal; Ferreira 1988). This may result in fluctuations of their distributional range, which is highlighted by the expansion of the population into previously extirpated areas such as the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve, the mountains east of Cradock, and the areas south of the N2 between Humansdorp and Cape St Francis in the Eastern Cape Province.

Population trend

Trend

Several authors in southern Africa have estimated local population size. For example, in the Drakensberg Mountains, KwaZulu-Natal Province, Rowe-Rowe (1982) estimated densities of 0.34–0.40 individual / km². In the Free State and Northern Cape provinces, estimated densities were 0.02 individual / km² on game farms that actively managed Black-backed Jackals compared to 0.33 to 0.43 individual / km² on game farms that did not (Klare et al. 2010; Kamler et al. 2013). Further, on the game farms that did not actively manage jackals, jackal density varied depending on prey diversity and abundance (Klare et al. 2010). Thus, Black-backed Jackal densities likely vary depending on the dispersion and abundance of resources, as well as the intensity and frequency of predator management. Local population density may also be influenced by the density and composition of the carnivore community (e.g. African Lion Panthera leo, Leopard Panthera pardus, Spotted Hyaena Crocuta crocuta, and Caracal). Apex predators may facilitate scavenging opportunities for Black-backed Jackals resulting in increased local densities, but may also increase the risk of predation (i.e. interspecific competition) resulting in reduced local densities (Brassine & Parker 2012; Minnie 2016). Consequently, it is expected that Black-backed Jackal population density should vary greatly in the assessment region.

The regional variation in population density relative to local resource abundance (amongst other factors) is exemplified by the Black-backed Jackal populations on the Namibian coast. Nel et al. (2013) compared jackal densities between three areas that differ markedly in resource availability. Densities varied from 0.07 individual / km² along the Skeleton coast (low food resources), to 2.91 individuals / km² at Sandwich harbour (intermediate), reaching a maximum of 13.05 individuals / km² at Cape Cross (high). Due to a localised increase in resource abundance in the latter area, jackals were non-territorial with widely overlapping home ranges.

To date, no accurate population estimates for the Black-backed Jackal within the assessment region exist, and extrapolating local population densities to the entire assessment region is inappropriate and may result in extremely inaccurate population estimations. However, owing to the minimum densities mentioned above and the wide distribution of this species in the assessment region, there are likely over 10,000 mature individuals in the population. Anecdotal evidence suggests that numbers have increased over the last 15 years in some areas (Avenant & du Plessis 2008; du Plessis 2013). Thus, owing to this species’ wide distributional range and persistence in the face of persecution, it is expected that the population will not decline in the future. However, lethal control in combination with other management practices may result in local extirpations (Walton & Joly 2003; Blaum et al. 2009; Kamler et al. 2013). Individuals from neighbouring areas will re-establish territories in these vacant areas (i.e. compensatory immigration; Minnie 2016).

Threats

Within the assessment region, Black-backed Jackals are hunted, trapped and illegally poisoned for their role as livestock and ungulate predators. Persecution occurs in most livestock farming areas and in some game farming areas (Beinart 1998; van Niekerk 2010; du Plessis 2013; Badenhorst 2014; Minnie 2016; Schepers 2016; Pirie et al. 2017), and is widespread across the assessment region (Photo 2). Historically, hunting clubs and jackal-proof fencing was subsidised by the government to assist farmers with Black-backed Jackal population control (Stadler 2006; Bergman et al. 2013). These hunting clubs killed a large number of individuals (e.g. Gunter 2008; Bothma 2012; Conradie 2012). For example, Oranjejag killed an average of 786 Black-backed Jackals per year in the Free State Province between 1959 and 1991 (Bothma 2012). Culling subsequently declined after the abolishment of government subsidies, but a recent (2009 onwards) resurgence in culling operations over large areas has occurred (van Niekerk 2010; du Plessis 2013). Full-time damage-causing animal hunters are now commonplace (du Plessis 2013). The intensity of lethal management presumably fluctuates with actual and perceived predation rates, but currently we suspect that it is increasing.

While it is still unknown how many Black-backed Jackals are killed annually within the assessment region, population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local population size (Avenant & du Plessis 2008; Minnie et al. 2016). In fact, despite concerted population reduction efforts for more than 350 years, Black-backed Jackals still persist (Stadler 2006; Bergman et al. 2013; Kerley et al. 2017). This persistence may be ascribed to their highly adaptable nature and their high reproductive potential and dispersal abilities (du Plessis et al. 2015; Minnie et al. 2016). Black-backed Jackal populations that are subject to high levels of anthropogenic mortality may start reproducing at younger ages and produce larger litters (i.e. compensatory reproduction; Minnie et al. 2016). This is attributed to a disruption in the normal, mutually exclusive, territorial structure – due to high levels of lethal management – which allows younger individuals to reproduce (Minnie et al. 2016). Further, the variation in management intensity within the assessment region results in the formation of a source-sink system, which allows for compensatory immigration (Minnie 2016). Here, compensatory immigration occurs when individuals from unmanaged or lightly managed areas (e.g. conservation areas) disperse into the vacant territories in managed areas (e.g. livestock farms; Minnie 2016; Minnie et al. 2016). The combination of compensatory reproduction and dispersal is likely the reason for their persistence in the face of severe anthropogenic mortality, and may continue to negate population reduction efforts.

Black-backed Jackals are also persecuted for their role as diseases vectors (e.g. canine distemper virus, rabies virus and anthrax; Bellan et al. 2012), mostly in the central southern African part of their distributional range (Loveridge & Nel 2004). This thus represents a major cause of mortality within these areas. The efficacy of these management programmes is questionable and McKenzie (1993) suggests that it may actually promote disease transmission via increased dispersal and agonistic interactions associated with a source–sink system. However, the impact of these diseases on Black-backed Jackal populations within the assessment region is unknown.

Urbanisation and human population growth have resulted in habitat transformation, which has been associated with the decline of several species. Although there are no accurate estimates of Black-backed Jackal population densities in the assessment area, it appears that agricultural habitat transformation does not pose a serious threat to Black-backed Jackals in the assessment area, as they are still widespread in these areas. Conversely, habitat transformations associated with agricultural expansion may contribute to the success of opportunistic species by providing anthropogenic food subsidies (Oro et al. 2013). Anthropogenic food subsidies such as road kill, naïve livestock and illegal garbage dumps have been related to artificially inflated population sizes of Golden Jackal (Canis aureus; Yom-Tov et al. 1995) and Coyotes (Fedriani et al. 2001). This may also be the case for Black-backed Jackal populations. Thus, anthropogenic habitat transformation may have improved the extent and quality of habitats available to this species.

Uses and trade

No significant trade in Black-backed Jackal products exists (Hoffmann 2014). However, infrequent trade has been documented, including trophy hunting (L. Minnie pers. obs. 2013) and the sale of skins in the curio trade, but this should have little effect on population persistence. The extent of use of Black-backed Jackal products is unknown but it has been recorded. For example, body parts are used for cultural purposes (Avenant 2004) as traditional medicine (Hoffmann 2014; Williams & Whiting 2016) and in certain areas the meat is consumed (Avenant 2004; L. Minnie pers. obs. 2013). The impacts of use and trade on Black-backed Jackal populations is presumed to be negligible. Additionally, several researchers have used (e.g. Bingham & Purchase 2002; Brassine 2011; Minnie 2016), or are currently using dead Black-backed Jackals for research purposes. These specimens are collected from farm and reserve managers who killed them, presumably to reduce predation impacts on valued ungulate species and livestock. This retaliatory killing of Black-backed Jackals is probably the largest threat to population persistence.

The recent trend in the conversion of livestock farms to wildlife ranches may represent a land use change that provides a more natural habitat for Black-backed Jackals than livestock farms. This may be ascribed to a more “natural” prey base (e.g. indigenous ungulates vs. introduced livestock) on some ranches. In some cases, ranch managers do not manage Black-backed Jackal populations, but lethal management appears to be on the increase (e.g. De Waal 2009; Klare et al. 2010; du Plessis 2013; Pirie et al. 2017) as wildlife ranching is in conflict with predators (Thorn et al. 2012; Schepers 2016; Pirie et al. 2017). These populations are managed to reduce predation on valued ungulate species (e.g. high-value colour morphs and trophy animals), and the value of ungulate species may be directly proportional to retaliatory killing (Pirie et al. 2017). The variation in intensity of lethal control between land uses (i.e. game ranch vs. livestock farm) has not been rigorously quantified. However, it appears that in some cases ranch managers have a more negative attitude towards predators than livestock farmers (Pirie et al. 2017). Thus, it is not possible to discern the net effects of wildlife ranching on the Black-backed Jackal.

Conservation

Black-backed Jackals are widely distributed and occur in most protected areas within the assessment region. Additionally, a large proportion of the population occurs outside protected areas, particularly in livestock farming areas. The Black-backed Jackal is not included in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendices nor is it included in the South African Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) Regulations. Therefore, it has no legal protection outside protected areas. The largest threat to the Black-backed Jackal is lethal management actions aimed at reducing population size and associated livestock and ungulate losses. Although temporary reduction and local extirpations in response to lethal management actions have been documented (e.g. Blaum et al. 2009; Kamler et al. 2013; Walton & Joly 2003), Black-backed Jackals have persisted in these farming areas despite extensive lethal management (> 350 years; Stadler 2006; Avenant & du Plessis 2008; du Plessis 2013; Kerley et al. 2017) and are expected to persist into the future. Thus, no active conservation efforts are currently required. However, the response of Black-backed Jackal populations to management interventions, as well as the effectiveness of these management interventions in reducing livestock and ungulate predation, is unknown. Thus, it is extremely important to accurately monitor Black-backed Jackal populations throughout the assessment region to determine distribution and abundance, as well as the impact of predator management actions on local populations. This will provide the necessary baseline information to make informed conservation and management decisions. Additionally, conservation efforts aimed at reducing human–wildlife conflict are urgently required.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: Several predator and livestock management techniques have been employed to reduce predation on livestock. However, the efficacy of these techniques in reducing predation as well as the impacts on Black-backed Jackal populations are unknown, and likely vary tremendously throughout the assessment region. Thus, we cannot provide effective recommendations for land managers, until these methods have been systematically evaluated. However, we suggest some management actions that, according to anecdotal evidence, have been successful in certain areas (Table 5). Du Plessis (2013) reviewed the management actions used to reduce livestock predation by Black-backed Jackal and suggested that non-lethal, preventative and exclusion techniques are the most conservation-friendly. Lethal management should be avoided, if possible, as Black-backed Jackal populations compensate for increased mortality by producing larger litters at younger ages (Minnie et al. 2016). However, when lethal management is employed, it should be applied selectively to ensure that the territorial structure of Black-backed Jackals remains intact. This may reduce compensatory immigration from neighbouring areas (Minnie 2016). Avoiding these compensatory life-history responses (reproduction and immigration), which may negate population reduction efforts (Minnie et al. 2016), may assist in the effective management of Black-backed Jackal predation on livestock and valued ungulate species. Further, Black-backed Jackals are highly adaptable and it has been suggested that they habituate to specific methods. Thus, we suggest using a combination of management strategies and rotating between these to reduce the chances of Black-backed Jackals learning to bypass these measures. Finally, it is of the utmost importance that land managers keep accurate records of the population trends and the efficacy of management interventions, which will assist in effective adaptive management.

The following management programmes, information centres and collaborative initiatives should be of interest to managers, game ranchers and farmers, who seek information and assistance with regards to the management of conflicts between Black-backed Jackals and humans:
  • Canis–Caracal Programme (CCP), run by the African Large Predator Research Unit (ALPRU), University of the Free State (UFS): aims at finding solutions to reduce the widespread impact of predation on the livestock industry (national). Contact details: Prof. H.O. de Waal, Department of Animal, Wildlife and Grassland Sciences and African Large Predator Research Unit (ALPRU), PO Box 339, Internal Box
  • 70, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa. Email: dewaalho@ufs.ac.za.
  • Predation Management Information Centre (PMIC): collating and analysing reliable information on predation and predation management methods, which will be made available continuously to a management information system (MIS). A team of dedicated staff members handles calls and enquiries. Experts in the team are available to provide advice to farmers. The centre is also responsible for the management of information and resources. Aim: to generate information that can be used to reduce the widespread impact of predation on the livestock industry. A collaborative initiative between the UFS and the Predation Managemetn Forum (PMF). Contact details: Email: PredationMC@ufs.ac.za. Telephone: 051 401 2210 (on week days from 08:00–16:00).
  • Scientific Assessment on Livestock Predation in South Africa (PredSA): a collaborative initiative between the Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Department of Environmental Affairs, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Red Meat Research Development Planning Committee, National Wool Growers Association, Cape Wools and Mohair Trust. Contact details: Prof. Graham Kerley, Centre for African Conservation Ecology (ACE), PO Box 77000, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, 6031, South Africa. Email:graham.kerley@nmmu.ac.za.

Research priorities: Black-backed Jackals have been cited as the dominant predators of livestock in the assessment region (e.g. van Niekerk 2010; du Plessis 2013; Minnie et al. 2016; Kerley et al. 2017) and cause large financial losses to the livestock production industry (van Niekerk 2010). Given this dominant role in livestock predation, it is expected that adequate research would have been conducted. However, this is not the case, as most research was spatially and temporally isolated with a limited scope, and mostly confined to protected areas (du Plessis et al. 2015). Importantly, many research groups are currently addressing these priority knowledge gaps. Below we highlight the thematic areas where research needs to be prioritised and we suggest some applied research questions that need to be addressed to reduce human–carnivore conflict.

Ecology: A prerequisite for adaptive management is a sound ecological understanding of the focal species. Without this information it is difficult to predict the efficacy of management interventions and the effects thereof on the behaviour and ecology of target animals. Most importantly, there is a severe lack of accurate population estimates for Black-backed Jackals throughout the assessment region. Thus, a more systematic and regular monitoring programme is required to understand local fluctuations in population densities and to provide important baseline information.
Potential research questions:
  • What drives distribution and variation in local densities?
  • How do seasonal fluctuations in resource availability influence density and social structure?
  • What are the environmental drivers of predation?
  • What is the level of dispersal between various land uses and what drives this dispersal (sensu Minnie 2016)?
  • To what extent, and under which conditions do Black-backed Jackals display compensatory reproduction (sensu Minnie et al. 2016)?
  • Can “problem individuals” (i.e. sections of a population that consume more livestock/ungulates than others) be identified?
  • What is the ecological role of the Black-backed Jackal (i.e. impacts on associated predator and prey populations)?

Predator and livestock management techniques: Relatively little research has focussed on the role of Black-backed Jackals as predators of livestock (Beinart 1998; van Sittert 1998; du Plessis 2013) and ungulates, as well as the various predator and livestock management methods employed to reduce livestock predation (e.g. du Plessis 2013; McManus et al. 2014). This limits our ability to effectively manage livestock and ungulate predation. Most information on these methods is contained in popular literature (du Plessis 2013). Therefore, research needs to focus on accurately assessing the efficacy of various management methods. Preferably this should be conducted within an adaptive management framework, which will assist in developing effective management regimes aimed at reducing human–carnivore conflict. Additionally, quantitative information on the extent of livestock and wildlife predation across the assessment region is required to substantiate reported losses, and provide scientifically defensible grounds for management decisions.
Potential research questions:
  • What are the spatial and temporal patterns of predation on livestock/ungulates?
  • Which factors drive variation in local predation patterns?
  • What is the viability and efficacy of various management methods?
  • Which variables influence the local efficacy of various management methods?

Economics: Even though Black-backed Jackals are the dominant predators of livestock in the assessment region, surprisingly little information on the extent of this predation is available (see Strauss 2009; van Niekerk 2010). Thus, researchers need to focus on estimating the extent of predation, the economic consequences of this, as well as the economic costs of employing various livestock and predator management techniques.
Potential research questions:
  • What are the direct and indirect economic costs of predation?
  • What are the short- and long-term costs and benefits of various management techniques?

Social: In many cases, the perception of the landowner is more important in driving management decisions than the actual predation impact (e.g. Minnie et al. 2015). However, there is a paucity of information on the perceptions of various stakeholders towards Black-backed Jackals, predation and associated management actions. Understanding these perceptions and their drivers may assist in developing sustainable management strategies. Without this information, the acceptance of any proposed management interventions is unlikely (du Plessis 2013).
Potential research questions:
  • Who are the interested and affected parties?
  • What drives the perceptions of these stakeholders?

Considering the interrelatedness of these various aspects, it is important that all stakeholders – including ecologists, social scientists, economists, wildlife managers, farmers, ranchers and government officials contribute to the development of a sustainable, adaptive management strategy. Future research should be conducted systematically, as a combined effort, to ensure that the priority knowledge gaps are filled (see du Plessis 2013).
Ongoing research projects and research foci:
  • Centre for African Conservation Ecology (ACE), Nelson Mandela University and University of Mpumalanga (UMP): Diet, reproduction, population structure, regional dispersal and the impacts of lethal management on population structure.
  • Centre for Wildlife Management, University of Pretoria: Diet and social structure.
  • Cheetah Conservation Fund: Livestock guarding dog programme.
  • Endangered Wildlife Trust: Human–carnivore conflict.
  • Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, University of Cape Town (UCT): Human–carnivore conflict and economics.
  • Karoo Predator Ecology And Coexistence Experiment Project, Cape Leopard Trust: Human–carnivore conflict.
  • Karoo Predator Project, UCT: Diet, spatial ecology and human–carnivore conflict.
  • National Museum Bloemfontein and Centre for Environmental Management, University of the Free State: Ecology, socio-economics and effects of management on ecosystem integrity.
  • North-West Parks: Diet, social structure, space use and interactions with top-predators.
  • UMP and Rhodes University: Diet, human–carnivore conflict and livestock management techniques.
  • University of Fort Hare and ACE: Diet and interactions with top-predators.
  • University of the Free State and African Large Predator Research Unit: Human–carnivore conflict and diet
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Report sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas.
  • Record and report predation on livestock and ungulate species.
  • Individuals actively managing this species should report all the dead animals (trapped, shot or poisoned), as well as confirmed predation events, including photographs and GPS coordinates, to the national Predation Management Information Centre (PMIC; email: PredationMC@ufs.ac.za).
  • Livestock farmers can assist by encouraging scientific research on their properties.
  • Use holistic predator and livestock management methods. Additionally, employ these methods in an adaptive management framework to ensure the collation of information.
  • Livestock farmers can actively monitor and record the effectiveness of management methods within an adaptive management framework. Through liaison with the scientific community, results can be accurately recorded and analysed to determine best-management practices.

References 

[@book{275,
 address = {Cambridge},
 author = {Skinner, J.D. and Chimimba, C.T.},
 publisher = {Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom},
 title = {The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion},
 year = {2005}
}
,@book{1087,
 address = {Pretoria, South Africa},
 author = {Meester, J.A.J., Rautenbach, I.L., Dippenaar, N.J. and Baker, C.M.},
 publisher = {Transvaal Museum },
 title = {Classification of Southern African Mammals. Monograph number 5.},
 year = {1986}
}
,@phdthesis{14262,
 author = {Morwe, J.B.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {Determining the direct impact of black-backed jackal (<i>Canis mesomelas</i>) on the springbok (<i>Antidorcas marsupialis</i>) population at Maria Moroka Nature Reserve, Free State, South Africa. B.Sc. Honours Thesis},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{16484,
 author = {Minnie L, Gaylard A, Kerley GI},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Ecology},
 pages = {379--387},
 title = {Compensatory life-history responses of a mesopredator may undermine carnivore management efforts},
 volume = {53},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{219,
 author = {McManus JS, Dickman AJ, Gaynor D, Smuts BH, Macdonald DW.},
 journal = {Oryx},
 pages = {687--695},
 title = {Dead or alive? Comparing costs and benefits of lethal and non-lethal human–wildlife conflict mitigation on livestock farms},
 volume = {49},
 year = {2015}
}
,@book{1793,
 address = {Pietermaritzburg, South Africa},
 author = {Rowe-Rowe, D.T.},
 publisher = {Natal Parks Board},
 title = {The Carnivores of Natal},
 year = {1992}
}
,@techreport{1793,
 author = {Avenant NL},
 institution = {United Nations Development Plan, Lesotho},
 title = {Conserving Mountain Biodiversity in Southern Lesotho: Mammal report},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{2060,
 author = {Oosthuizen, W.H., Meyer, M.A., David, J.H.M., Summers, N.M., Kotze, P.G.H., Swanson, S.W. and Shaughnessy, P.D.},
 journal = {African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {26--29},
 title = {Variation in jackal numbers at the Van ReenenBay seal colony with comment on the likely importance of jackals as predators},
 volume = {27},
 year = {1997}
}
,@book{3753,
 address = {Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK},
 author = {Sillero-Zubiri, C., Hoffmann, M. and Macdonald, D.W.},
 publisher = {IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group, IUCN},
 title = {Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan},
 year = {2004}
}
,@phdthesis{3753,
 author = {Loveridge, A. J.},
 school = {University of Oxford},
 title = {Behavioural-ecology and rabies transmission in sympatric Southern African jackals},
 year = {1999}
}
,@article{3753,
 author = {Fuller, T. K., Biknevicius, A. R., Kat, P. W., Van Valkenburgh, B. and Wayne, R. K.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {313--323},
 title = {The ecology of three sympatric jackal species in the Rift Valley of Kenya},
 volume = {27},
 year = {1989}
}
,@article{3753,
 author = {Loveridge, A. J. and Macdonald, D. W.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology (London)},
 pages = {143--153},
 title = {Niche separation in sympatric jackals (<i>Canis mesomelas</i> and <i>Canis adustus</i>)},
 volume = {259},
 year = {2003}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Loveridge, A. J. and Macdonald, D. W.},
 journal = {Journal of Mammalogy},
 pages = {599--607},
 title = {Habitat ecology of two sympatric species of jackals in Zimbabwe},
 volume = {83},
 year = {2002}
}
,@book{3755,
 address = {Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA},
 author = {Estes, R.D.},
 publisher = {University of California Press},
 title = {The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores and Primates},
 year = {1991}
}
,@book{3755,
 address = {London, UK},
 author = {Kingdon, J.},
 publisher = {Academic Press},
 title = {East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa. Volume IIIA (Carnivores)},
 year = {1977}
}
,@inbook{3755,
 address = {Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, USA},
 author = {Moehlman, P.D.},
 booktitle = {Socioecology of silverbacked and golden jackals (<i>Canis mesomelas</i> and <i>Canis aureus</i>)},
 pages = {423--453},
 publisher = {American Society of Mammologists},
 title = {Recent advances in the study of mammalian behavior},
 year = {1983}
}
,@book{3755,
 address = {Lusaka, Northern Rhodesia},
 author = {Ansell, W. F. H.},
 publisher = {The Government Printer},
 title = {Mammals of Northern Rhodesia},
 year = {1960}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Lamprecht, J.},
 journal = {Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde},
 pages = {210--223},
 title = {On diet, foraging behaviour and interspecific food competition of jackals in the Serengeti National Park, East Africa},
 volume = {43},
 year = {1978}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Rowe-Rowe, D. T.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {79--84},
 title = {Home range and movements of black-backed jackals in an African montane region},
 volume = {12},
 year = {1982}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Wyman, J.},
 journal = {Animals},
 pages = {79--83},
 title = {The jackals of the Serengeti},
 volume = {10},
 year = {1967}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Smithers, R.H.N.},
 journal = {National Museums of Rhodesia, Museum Memoir},
 pages = {1--340},
 title = {The mammals of Botswana},
 volume = {4},
 year = {1971}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Loveridge, A. & Macdonald, D. W.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {101--111},
 title = {Seasonality in spatial organisation and dispersal of sympatric jackals: implications for rabies management},
 volume = {253},
 year = {2001}
}
,@inbook{3755,
 address = {London},
 author = {Kingdon  and Hoffmann },
 booktitle = {Canis mesomelas Black-backed Jackal},
 editor = {Loveridge, A.J. and Nel, J.A.J.},
 pages = {39--44},
 publisher = {Bloomsbury},
 title = {Mammals of Africa. Volume 5. Carnivores, Pangolins, Equids and Rhinoceroses},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Blaum, N., Tietjien, B., and Rossmanith, E.},
 journal = {Journal of Wildlife Management },
 pages = {60--67},
 title = {Impact of livestock husbandry on small- and medium-sized carnivores in Kalahari Savannah Rangelands},
 volume = {73},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kamler, J. F., Stenkewitz, U., Klare, U. Jacobsen, N. F., and Macdonald, D. W. },
 journal = {Journal of Wildlife Management},
 pages = {1241--1253},
 title = {Resource partitioning among cape foxes,  bat-eared foxes, and black-backed jackals in South Africa},
 volume = {76},
 year = {2012}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kamler, J. F., Stenkewitz, U., and Macdonald, D. W.},
 journal = {Journal of Mammalogy },
 number = {295-306},
 title = {Lethal and sublethal effects of black-backed jackals on cape foxes and bat-eared foxes},
 volume = {94},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Avenant, N.L. and du Plessis,  J.J. },
 journal = {Mammalia },
 pages = {258--263},
 title = {Sustainable small stock farming and ecosystem conservation in southern Africa: a role for small mammals?},
 volume = {72},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Fairall N},
 journal = {Zoologica Africana},
 pages = {189--210},
 title = {The reproductive seasons of some mammals in the Kruger National Park},
 volume = {3},
 year = {1968}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Pohl, C.F.},
 school = {Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State},
 title = {The diet of caracal (<i>Caracal caracal</i>) in the Southern Free State},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Klare, U., Kamler, J.F., Stenkewitz, U. and Macdonald, D.W. },
 journal = {Journal of Wildlife Management },
 pages = {1030--1042},
 title = {Diet, prey selection, and predation impact of black-backed jackals in South Africa},
 volume = {74},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Rowe-Rowe DT.},
 journal = {Lammergeyer },
 pages = {1–48},
 title = {The small carnivores of Natal.},
 volume = {25},
 year = {1978}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Atickem A, Stenseth NC, Drouilly M, Bock S, Roos C, Zinner D.},
 journal = {Zoologica Scripta},
 pages = {1–8 (early online)},
 title = {Deep divergence among mitochondrial lineages in African jackals},
 year = {2017}
}
,@proceedings{3755,
 address = {Cape Town, South Africa},
 editor = {Avenant NL, Steenkamp E, de Waal HO.},
 series = {Southern African Wildlife Management Association Symposium},
 title = {Reviewing a case study on the effects of different management options to reduce predation on small livestock in the Karoo},
 year = {2009}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Badenhorst CG.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {The economic cost of large stock predation in the North West Province of South Africa. M.Sc. Thesis.},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Bagniewska JM, Kamler JF.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecologyvvvv},
 pages = {546–567},
 title = {Do black-backed jackals affect numbers of smaller carnivores and prey?},
 volume = {52},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Beinart W.},
 journal = {Past & Present},
 pages = {172–206},
 title = {The night of the jackal: sheep, pastures and predators in the Cape.},
 volume = {158},
 year = {1998}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Bellan SE, Cizauskas CA, Miyen J, Ebersohn K, Kusters M, Prager KC, van Vuuren M, Sabeta C, Getz WM.},
 journal = {Journal of Wildlife Diseases},
 pages = {371–381},
 title = {Black-backed jackal exposure to rabies virus, Canine Distemper Virus, and Bacillus anthracis in Etosha National Park, Namibia},
 volume = {48},
 year = {2012}
}
,@proceedings{3755,
 address = {Lincoln, USA},
 editor = {Bergman DL, de Waal HO, Avenant NL, Bodenchuk MJ, Marlow MC, Nolte DL.},
 publisher = {University of Nebraska},
 series = {Wildlife Damage Management Conference.},
 title = {The need to address black-backed jackal and caracal predation in South Africa.},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Bernard RTF & Stuart CT.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Science},
 pages = {292–294},
 title = {Correlates of diet and reproduction in the black-backed jackal},
 volume = {88},
 year = {1992}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Bingham J, Purchase GK.},
 journal = {African Zoology},
 number = {21–26},
 title = {Reproduction in the jackals Canis adustus Sundevall, 1846, and Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1778 (Carnivora: Canidae), in Zimbabwe},
 volume = {37},
 year = {2002}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Bothma J du P.},
 journal = {Zoology Africana},
 pages = {205–207},
 title = {Notes on movement by the black-backed jackal and the aardwolf in the western Transvaal.},
 volume = {6},
 year = {1971}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Brassine MC.},
 school = {Rhodes University},
 title = {The diet and ecological role of black-backed jackals, Canis mesomelas, in two conservation areas in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. M.Sc. Thesis.},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Brassine MC, Parker DM.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {243–246},
 title = {Does the presence of large predators affect the diet of a mesopredator?},
 volume = {50},
 year = {2012}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Collinson WJ, Parker DM, Bernard RTF, Reilly BK, Davies-Mostert HT.},
 journal = {African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {301–311},
 title = {An inventory of vertebrate roadkill in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area, South Africa.},
 volume = {45},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Conradie B.},
 journal = {Agrekon},
 pages = {96–113},
 title = {Are hunting clubs the solution to small stock depredation? The case of Ceres, 1979 and 1980.},
 volume = { 51},
 year = {2012}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Deacon F.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {Aspekte rakende die ruimtelike ekologie van die rooijakkals (Canis mesomelas) as probleemdier in die Suid-Vrystaat. M.Sc. Thesis},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {de Waal HO.},
 journal = {Merino SA Focus},
 number = {44–46},
 title = {Recent advances in co-ordinated predator management in South Africa.},
 volume = { 2009},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Do Linh San E, Malongwe NB, Fike B, Somers MJ, Walters M.},
 journal = {Wildlife Biology in Practice},
 pages = {96–103},
 title = {Autumn diet of black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) in the thicket biome of South Africa.},
 volume = {5},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Drouilly M, Nattrass N, O’Riain J.},
 journal = {Journal of Wildlife Management.},
 title = {Dietary niche relationships among predators on farmland and a protected area},
 year = {in press}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {du Plessis JJ.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {Towards the development of a sustainable management strategy for Canis mesomelas and Caracal caracal on rangeland. Ph.D. Thesis},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {du Plessis JJ, Avenant NL, de Waal HO.},
 journal = {African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {138–157},
 title = {Quality and quantity of the scientific information available on black-backed jackals and caracals: contributing to human–predator conflict management?},
 volume = {45},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {du Plessis SS.},
 journal = {Wildlife Monographs},
 pages = {3–70},
 title = {Ecology of blesbok with special reference to productivity.},
 volume = {30},
 year = {1972}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Fedriani JM, Fuller TK, Sauvajot RM},
 journal = {Ecography},
 pages = {325–331},
 title = {Does availability of anthropogenic food enhance densities of omnivorous mammals? An example with coyotes in Southern California.},
 volume = {24},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Ferguson JWH, Nel JAJ, de Wet MJ.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology },
 pages = {487–502},
 title = {Social organization and movement patterns of black-backed jackals Canis mesomelas in South Africa.},
 volume = {199v},
 year = {1983}
}
,@techreport{3755,
 address = {Bloemfontein, South Africa.},
 author = {Ferreira NA.},
 institution = {Orange Free State Provincial Administration,irectorate Environmental and Nature Conservation},
 title = {Sekere aspekte van die ekologie en die beheer van die rooikat (Felis caracal) in die Oranje-Vrystaat. Unpublished report, },
 year = {1988}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Fourie RM, Tambling CJ, Gaylard A, Kerley GIH.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {521–530},
 title = {Short-term foraging responses of a generalist predator to management-driven resource pulses},
 volume = {53},
 year = {2015}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Gunter Q.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {A critical evaluation of historical data on two damage causing predators, Canis mesomelas and Caracal caracal. M.Sc. Thesis},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Hayward MW, Porter L, Lanszki J, Kamler JF, Beck JM, Kerley GIH, Macdonald DW, Montgomery RA, Parker DM, Scott DM, O'Brien J, Yarnell RW.},
 journal = {Mammalian Biology},
 pages = {70–82},
 title = {Factors affecting prey preferences of jackals (Canidae)},
 volume = {85},
 year = {2017}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Hiscocks K, Perrin MR.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {97–100},
 title = {Home range and movements of black-backed jackals at Cape Cross Seal Reserve, Namibia.},
 volume = {18},
 year = {1988}
}
,@techreport{3755,
 author = {Hoffmann M.},
 title = {Canis mesomelas. },
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Humphries BD, Ramesh T, Hill TR, Downs CT.},
 journal = {African Zoology},
 pages = {37–45},
 title = {Habitat use and home range of black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) on farmlands in the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa},
 volume = {51},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {James RS, Scott DM, Yarnell RW, Overall ADJ.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {184–192},
 title = {Food availability and population structure: how do clumped and abundant sources of carrion affect the genetic diversity of the black-backed jackal?},
 volume = {301},
 year = {2017}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Jenner N, Groombridge J, Funk SM.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {231–238},
 title = {Commuting, territoriality and variation in group and territory size in a black-backed jackal population reliant on a clumped, abundant food resource in Namibia.},
 volume = {284},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kamler JF, Foght JL, Collins K.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {847–848},
 title = {Single black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) kills adult impala (Aepyceros melampus).},
 volume = {48},
 year = {2010}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kamler JF, Klare U, Macdonald DW.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {2099–2307},
 title = {Seasonal diet and prey selection of black-backed jackals on a small-livestock farm in South Africa.},
 volume = {50},
 year = {2012}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kaunda SKK, Skinner JD.},
 journal = {African Journal of Ecology},
 pages = {39–46},
 title = {Black-backed jackal diet at Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Botswana.},
 volume = {41},
 year = {2003}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kerley GIH, Behrens KG, Carruthers J, Diemont M, du Plessis J, Minnie L, Richardson PRK, Somers MJ, Tambling CJ, Turpie J, van Niekerk HN, Balfour D.},
 journal = {South African Journal of Science},
 pages = {1–3},
 title = {Livestock predation in South Africa: the need for and value of a scientific assessment.},
 volume = {113},
 year = {2017}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Kok OB & Nel JAJ.},
 journal = {Biological Journal of the Linnean Society},
 pages = {527–538},
 title = {Convergence and divergence in prey of sympatric canids and felids: opportunism or phylogenetic constraint?},
 volume = {83},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Leijenaar S-L, Cilliers D, Whitehouse-Tedd K.},
 journal = {Journal of Agriculture and Biodiversity Research},
 pages = {9–15},
 title = {Reduction in livestock losses following placement of livestock guarding dogs and the impact of herd species and dog sex},
 volume = {4},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Macdonald DW.},
 journal = {Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology},
 pages = {17–38},
 title = {The Flexible Social System of the Golden Jackal, Canis aureus},
 volume = {5},
 year = {1979}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Marker LL, Dickman AJ, Macdonald DW.},
 journal = {Rangeland Ecology & Management},
 pages = {329–336},
 title = {Perceived effectiveness of livestock-guarding dogs placed on Namibian farms.},
 volume = {58},
 year = {2005}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {McKenzie AA.},
 school = {University of Pretoria},
 title = {Co-operative hunting in the black-backed jackal, Canis mesomelas, Schreber. Ph.D. Thesis},
 year = {1990}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {McKenzie MM.},
 journal = {Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research},
 pages = {367–371},
 title = {Biology of the black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas with reference to rabies.},
 volume = {60},
 year = {1993}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Minnie L.},
 school = {Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University},
 title = {Socio-economic and ecological correlates of leopard-stock farmer interactions in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve, Eastern Cape. M.Sc. Thesis.},
 year = {2009}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Minnie L.},
 school = {Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University},
 title = {Effects of lethal management on black-backed jackal population structure and source–sink dynamics. Ph.D. Thesis},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Minnie L, Boshoff AF, Kerley GIH.},
 journal = {African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {204–214},
 title = {Vegetation type influences livestock predation by leopards: implications for conservation in agro-ecosystems},
 volume = {45},
 year = {2015}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Moehlman PD. },
 journal = {Nature},
 pages = {382–383},
 title = {Jackal helpers and pup survival},
 volume = {277},
 year = {1979}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Moehlman, PD.},
 journal = {American Scientist},
 pages = {366–375},
 title = {Social organization in jackals},
 volume = {75},
 year = {1987}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Murison MK.},
 school = {Rhodes University},
 title = {The roles of black-backed jackals and caracals in issues of human–wildlife conflict in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. M.Sc. Thesis},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Nel JAJ, Loutit RJ, Braby R, Somers MJ.},
 journal = {Acta Theriologica},
 pages = {189–197},
 title = {Resource dispersion, territory size and group size of black-backed jackals on a desert coast.},
 volume = {58},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Oro D, Genovart M, Tavecchia G, Fowler MS, Martínez-Abraín A.},
 journal = {Ecology Letters},
 pages = {1501–1514},
 title = {Ecological and evolutionary implications of food subsidies from humans.},
 volume = {16},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Pirie TJ, Thomas RL, Fellowes MDE.},
 journal = {PeerJ },
 number = {e3369},
 title = {Increasing game prices may alter farmers’ behaviours towards leopards (Panthera pardus) and other carnivores in South Africa.},
 volume = {5},
 year = {2017}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Potgieter GC, Marker LL, Avenant NL, Kerley GIH.},
 journal = {Human Dimensions of Wildlife},
 pages = {403–415},
 title = {Why Namibian farmers are satisfied with the performance of their livestock guarding dogs.},
 volume = {18},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Potgieter GC, Kerley GIH, Marker LL.},
 journal = {Oryx },
 pages = {514–522},
 title = {More bark than bite? The role of livestock guarding dogs in predator control on Namibian farmlands.},
 volume = {50},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Pringle JA & Pringle VL.},
 journal = {African Zoology},
 pages = {1–4},
 title = {Observations on the lynx Felis caracal in the Bedford district.},
 volume = {14},
 year = {1979}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Rowe-Rowe DT.},
 journal = {Lammergeyer },
 pages = {1–7},
 title = {Black-backed jackal population structure in the Natal Drakensberg.},
 volume = {32},
 year = {1984}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Schepers A.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {The economic impact of predation in the wildlife ranching industry in Limpopo, South Africa. M.Sc. Thesis},
 year = {2016}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Skead DM. },
 journal = {Journal of the Southern African Wildlife Management Association},
 pages = {28–29},
 title = {Incidence of calling in the black-backed jackal.},
 volume = {3},
 year = {1973}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Soulsbury CD, Iossa G, Baker PJ, Cole NC, Funk SM, Harris S.},
 journal = {Mammal Review},
 pages = {278–296},
 title = {The impact of sarcoptic mange Sarcoptes scabiei on the British fox Vulpes vulpes population.},
 volume = {37},
 year = {2007}
}
,@proceedings{3755,
 address = {Johannesburg, South Africa.},
 editor = {Stadler H.},
 publisher = {Endangered Wildlife Trust},
 series = {Workshop on Holistic Management of Human–Wildlife Conflict in the Agricultural Sector 94 of South Africa},
 title = {Historical perspectives on the development of problem animal management in the Cape Province.},
 year = {2006}
}
,@book{3755,
 address = {Cape Town, South Africa.},
 author = {Stewart D.},
 publisher = {Struik Publishers},
 title = {The Zebra’s Stripes and other African Animal Tales},
 year = {2004}
}
,@phdthesis{3755,
 author = {Strauss AJ.},
 school = {University of the Free State},
 title = {The impact of predation on a sheep enterprise in the Free State Province. M.Sc. Thesis.},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{3755,
 author = {Swanepoel LH, Swanepoel CM, Brown PR, Eiseb SJ, Goodman SM, Keith M, Kirsten F, Leirs H, Mahlaba TaAM, Makundi RH, Malebane P, von Maltitz EF, Massawe AW, Monadjem A, Mulungu LS, Singleton GR, Taylor PJ, Soarimalala V, Belmain SR.},
 journal = {PLoS One},
 number = {e0174554},
 title = {A systematic review of rodent pest research in Afro–Malagasy small-holder farming systems: Are we asking the right questions?},
 volume = {12},
 year = {2017}
}
,]
Send feedback about this assessment to SANBI

Lead agencies, Partners and Funders

See the partners page