Red List of South African Species

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Vulnerable (VU)
Assessors: Gwenith Penry Ken Findlay
Contributors: Claire Relton Matthew Child Simon Elwen Michael Meÿer Herman Oosthuizen Stephanie Plön
Reviewers: Peter Best Tim Collins

Rationale

Although the Bryde’s Whale complex may be split into a number of species or subspecies pending further genetic analyses, this assessment differentiates between an inshore and offshore form in South African waters, focusing most specifically on the inshore form. The coastal, inshore stock is suspected to consist of fewer than 1,000 mature individuals based on data from a 1982 line transect, ship-based survey that covered the known southern hemisphere summer distribution of the population and resulted in an estimate of 582 ± 184 animals where inclusion of secondary sightings might have increased this estimate by 29%. A mark recapture study in Plettenberg Bay produced an abundance estimate of between 150 and 250 individuals between 2005 and 2008, but how this relates to the total population is unknown. Based on the assumption that the population remains limited to fewer than 1,000 mature individuals, we list the inshore population as Vulnerable D1.

There are currently no assessments available for the offshore stock, which was exploited by land-based whalers from at least 1911 to 1967 as an integral part of the catch, and more extensively between 1969 and 1976 by illegal unregulated pelagic whaling. Being largely restricted to the southern African shelf edge from Cape Point to at least the equator; its environment is likely to have been exposed to oil and gas exploration activities for the last two decades. Given the suspected effects of seismic surveys on fish, it is possible (but completely unsupported by any data) that prey availability to this population may have been adversely affected. There are no population estimates either before or after exploitation or indications of trend and the offshore stock must be listed as Data Deficient.

This assessment echoes the global situation where the taxonomy (number and identity of species) is not yet resolved. If there is more than one species, the less abundant species may be threatened. If it is all one species, then it should be reclassified as Least Concern. Taxonomic resolution and current estimates of population size and trends for both forms are required and should result in a reassessment once such data are available.

Regional population effects: Currently, the inshore form is thought to exhibit non-migratory behaviour, and remains year-round over the continental shelf of South Africa (Best 2001); while the offshore form, occurring off the west coast of Southern Africa, appears to migrate northwards in autumn (Best 2001). There are no apparent barriers to the dispersal of either population.

Distribution

Substantial uncertainty exists over the geographical range and population sizes of both the offshore and inshore form of B. edeni, and in connection, the number of species and/or subspecies. Although morphological differences between these two populations exist (Best 1977, 2001), distinguishing one form from another, while at sea, remains a challenging feat. Furthermore, the offshore form was also often misidentified as the Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis).

The known distribution of the inshore form is within 20 nautical miles of the coast, over the continental shelf between Port St Johns and Lambert’s Bay, which roughly corresponds to the 200 m depth contour. The inshore form may show a seasonal shift in distribution, with the majority of sightings on the south-east coast of South Africa, between Cape Agulhas (20°E) and East London (~28°E) in summer (Best et al. 1984). These whales were previously shown to move up the west coast in winter; however, observations from the late 1990s appear lower than those during commercial whaling in the 1960s (Best 2001) when high numbers were caught further north in autumn and winter (Best 1977). This shift may reflect changes in the availability of pelagic fish, with a general south and eastward shift in the distribution of pilchard (Sardinops sagax and S. ocellata) and anchovy (Engraulis capensis) in summer (Crawford 1981). Individuals also follow the annual migration of sardine up the east coast of South Africa (commonly known as the “Sardine Run”) in winter, but the numbers involved and how far they follow the sardine schools is unclear.

Apart from water temperature, there is no obvious reason that the inshore form should not extend further up the west coast and into Namibian waters; however, sightings are extremely rare. Analyses of the mtDNA control region of an animal stranded in Walvis Bay in 2012 revealed an identical haplotype to animals sampled on the south coast of South Africa (G. Penry unpubl. data). Until a larger sample size has been collected we cannot confirm their residency in Namibian waters. Inshore whales were encountered more commonly during summer and autumn around the region of Plettenberg Bay (south-east coast of South Africa); with peak encounter rates in April (Penry et al. 2011). These results confirm those of Best (2001) who described a seasonal movement of inshore Bryde’s Whales down the west coast towards the Agulhas Bank in spring.

The offshore form ranges from 34°S to equatorial regions and occurs mainly off the west coast of South Africa in summer and Gabon in winter. All recorded catches were taken within 300 nautical miles of the coast. Potentially the geographical ranges of these two forms may occasionally overlap, but the degree of genetic differentiation between them suggests that they do not breed (Penry 2010). This supports the suggestion of a distributional separation between these two forms in reproduction, feeding and seasonal migration (Best 1977).

Population trend

Trend

Recent data on the inshore form (Penry 2010) suggest that the population size is small: closed population = 125 individuals (95% CI 107-155, CV = 0.09); open population individuals = 196 (95% CI 117–437, CV 0.37). However, the actual estimates are based on mark-recapture data collected in the coastal waters in and around Plettenberg Bay on the south coast (Penry 2010). The surveys covered a distance of approximately 55 km along the coast and ranged up to 10 km offshore. Their applicability to the total population is thus unknown. Additionally, molecular analyses suggest that the apparently resident South African inshore form is significantly differentiated from the seasonal offshore form, which is thought to occur at higher population numbers (Best 1996).

Between 1911 and 1967, more than 2,000 Bryde’s Whales were documented as caught by whaling operations off the Cape region of South Africa. This included 1,300 individuals caught between 1947 and 1967 (IWC 2006a), which are expected to have been from the inshore population of Bryde’s Whales (IWC 1980a, 1980b). Subsequently, in 1983, the South African inshore population was approximated at 582 ± 184 individuals (Best et al. 1984). Unfortunately, no population estimates are currently available for the rest of the South Atlantic, however, between 1969 and 1976 the majority of the 2,536 “Sei” Whales caught by the pirate whaling ship Sierra in the South Atlantic are, in fact, assumed to be Bryde’s Whales from the offshore stock (IWC 1980b; Best 1996). This suggests that the offshore population was probably more abundant than the inshore form.

Bryde’s Whales were not consistently distinguished from Sei Whales in International Whaling Statistics, but in some cases a breakdown of “Sei” Whale catches into the two species can be determined from original records, or approximated, based on current knowledge of the geographical and seasonal occurrence of Sei and Bryde’s Whales, or from the compositions of later catches in the same area and season (IWC 1997, 2006b). Population estimates of Bryde’s Whales in the southern hemisphere are in urgent need of reassessment. Historic estimates of abundance revealed the following approximations: in the southern Indian Ocean – 13,854; in the western South Pacific – 16,585; and in the eastern South Pacific – 13,194 (IWC 1981). These estimations were not founded on recently approved survey methods, and consequently a “zero catch limit” was set by the IWC for all Bryde’s Whales, until a satisfactory estimation of population size has been established (IWC 1983).

Threats

Both inshore and offshore stocks were subjected to some whaling in the past, but no specific estimates of depletion exist. The Bryde’s Whale was the incidental beneficiary of IWC area restrictions on factory ship whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). This benefit was lost to the offshore population in 1969, when an illegal and unregulated pelagic operation commenced whaling in the southeast Atlantic (Best 1996). No direct takes are known in the area since 1976.

Like most cetaceans, Bryde’s Whales are occasionally by-caught in fishing gear, but they do not appear to be especially susceptible within South African waters. In 2014, a Bryde’s Whale (presumably from the inshore population) was entangled and subsequently died in experimental octopus fishery lines in Plettenberg Bay, and a second in June 2016 in False Bay in the same fishery gear (G. Penry unpubl. data). The possible expansion of this fishery is a cause for concern along the South African coastline. Records of vessel strikes are also rare in South Africa. The inshore form potentially competes with pelagic fisheries (sardine, anchovies) (sensu Clapham et al. 1999). Given the suspected effects of seismic surveys on fish (Gordon et al. 2003, Koper and Plön 2012), it is possible (but completely unsupported by any data) that prey availability to this population may have been adversely affected. Disturbances from ecotourism ventures during the “Sardine Run”, while Bryde’s Whales are feeding on bait balls (roughly spherical, tightly packed formations of fish), have also been reported. Although increased water temperatures may be favourable for Bryde’s Whales, which prefer subtropical and tropic waters (MacLeod 2009), climate change and natural environmental stochasticity may exacerbate existing prey depletions (Burns and Baker 2000).

In summary, few immediate threats to the South African inshore Bryde’s Whale are apparent. This is not to say that there are none, just that they have not been well assessed. Apart from the potential reduction in prey resources, the relatively small size of the population and its genetic isolation is probably its greatest threat due to demographic, genetic and environmental stochasticity.

Uses and trade

Bryde’s Whales were possibly less impacted by commercial whaling than some other large whale species, although proper stock assessments are lacking in most areas and not straightforward given the (often) doubtful catch series involved. There has been no known direct whaling of this species in South African waters since 1976, however, some level of bycatch is possible by longline fisheries, but is undocumented and probably small.

Conservation

The “Sardine Run” appears to be a critically important natural phenomenon for many marine predators. The dense shoals of sardine during this migration provide relatively easy access to a valuable, high protein food source. Thus, the inshore population of Bryde’s Whales are considered largely dependent on this annual phenomenon and fisheries should be regulated accordingly. As such, the main intervention for this species is to estimate population sizes and unravel the discrepancy around the taxonomy of the offshore and inshore stocks. Subsequently, the inclusion of the species’ energetic requirements (based on the findings of Best et al. 1984) in setting Total Allowable Catch limits (TACs) for the pelagic fishery would benefit the South African inshore population. Additionally, an ecosystem approach to fisheries management is necessary. This is expected to also benefit many other marine species. Additionally, the identification of specific breeding and feeding areas of the inshore stock may prove beneficial to the conservation of this population. However, habitat utilisation is poorly known for the offshore stock, therefore no key areas can be identified.

Bryde’s Whales are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) – and are subject to international agreement/trade controls, thus international trade of Bryde’s Whale material is currently illegal. Additionally, the International Whaling Commission recognises the Bryde’s Whale as “protected since the moratorium apart from some special permit catches in the North Pacific”.

Recommendations for managers and practitioners:
  • Critical habitats need to be identified (breeding areas, important temporal and spatial feeding patterns and/or areas): satellite tagging could assist here.
  • Systematic monitoring: Ship-based line transect sampling to establish population size and trends. This includes the need for a range-wide abundance estimate.
  • Sightings submissions: Continual update of the photo-ID catalogue, in particular maximising the amount of data by involving commercial whale watching operators along the coast. Establishment of a national online data-basing system for citizen science, whale watch/sardine run operators, and research groups to upload sightings and photo-ID data with the aim of producing a population estimate every two years to identify trends in abundance.
  • Regulation of the “Sardine Run” diving operators and their activities. Several anecdotal reports are that divers disrupt bait balls resulting in the predator dispersing without securing a meal. This is of concern for several predators that depend on the dense shoals during the “run”. Following formal investigation into the severity of this threat, stricter permitting conditions and clear codes of conduct should be drawn up and implemented.
Research priorities: The Southern African Bryde’s Whale Project was initially implemented by the Centre for Dolphin Studies (Plettenberg Bay, South Africa) and St Andrews University, Scotland. Current research priorities include:
Bryde’s – type whales in general:
  • There is an urgent need for estimates of current population size throughout their entire known range due to the number of different stocks and populations that exist and the scarcity of information available for each. A ship-based line transect survey is probably the most reliable method to use.
  • Satellite tagging of individuals throughout their range to determine movements and spatial distribution of individuals. For example, is there panmixia or do individuals have preferred home ranges?
  • Need to confirm stock separation through genetic sampling of the offshore population to determine whether they are separate species or subspecies from the inshore.
  • Determination of their current dietary composition through collection of stomach contents from stranded animals and stable isotope analyses from biopsy samples collected from free ranging individuals. How does it compare to that 30 years previously? Are they able to adapt to changing prey availabilities?
  • Additional research into the value of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) as a management tool for pelagic fisheries.
  • Global comparison of all available molecular data (mtDNA and nDNA) on Bryde’s type whales for the purposes of taxonomic resolution of the complex. This is going to require collaboration, possibly with one person identified as the project coordinator by the IUCN/IWC/Society for Marine Mammalogy (SMM) taxonomy committee.
  • Population size, distributional limits and genetic identity (requiring a large sample size from all areas/countries within their range).
  • Specific priorities for the inshore form:
  • The extent of their distributional limits: distribution may extend further up the west coast, into Namibian waters (satellite tagging or ship based survey of extended range).
  • Movements: recent photo-ID work suggests surprisingly limited coastwise mixing between bays (c. 500 km apart), and satellite tagging of a number of individuals throughout the range could illuminate the degree of “residency” of individuals.
  • Range-wide ship-based line transect surveys replicating those completed 30 years ago (Best et al. 1984) is needed for a valid comparison of current population size estimates.
  • Routine stable isotope analyses to detect trophic level changes in their dietary contribution. Has their prey type shifted from a small-pelagic fish-based diet to one that includes euphausiids.
  • Data types – Satellite tagging, biopsy sampling for genotype mark-recapture, ship-based line transect survey, photo-ID data from small boat surveys throughout their range, and routine stable isotope analyses.
Specific priorities for the offshore form:
  • Estimate of current population size and trend estimates.
  • Genetic differentiation from other pelagic populations.
  • Identification of threats and threat severity.
  • Biopsy sampling to confirm genetic relationship between inshore population and other pelagic populations (e.g., North Atlantic and Eastern Indian Ocean).
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Uploading location sightings to virtual museum platforms will help in determining the spatial and temporal distribution of the population. This is particularly important for areas on the eastern and western limits of the current known range (approx. East London and Table Bay, respectively). This is only possible for the inshore form because the offshore population is generally inaccessible to citizens. Specifically, citizens can contribute by sending good quality ID photos taken on whale watching and/or pelagic bird trips to brydeswhaleproject@gmail.com. For questions or comments on Bryde’s sightings in South African waters, visit “The Southern African Bryde’s Whale Project” Facebook page.
  • Similarly, commercial whale-watching operators and sardine run operators must be encouraged to submit records of location, numbers and if possible ID photos to the same address.
  • Reduce boat speed in bays and harbours.
  • When participating in whale/dolphin watching tours, ensure regulations are followed.
  • Report any stranding, entanglement or ship strikes to the relevant local authorities.

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