Red List of South African Species

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Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Greg Hofmeyr Steven Kirkman Mdu Seakamela Pistorius Pierre
Contributors: Mike Meyer Herman Oosthuizen Lloyd Lowry Samantha Page-Nicholson Matthew Child
Reviewers: Steven Kirkman Greg Hofmeyr Mdu Seakamela Pistorius Pierre

Rationale

Due to its large population size, lack of major threats, and recently documented range expansions, the Cape Fur Seal of South Africa should remain classified as Least Concern. However, continued and increasing competition with fisheries, fisheries bycatch, entanglement in marine debris, and effects of climate change may threaten local colonies in the future. Mitigation measures should be put in place to counteract these threats.

Regional population effects:
Breeding colonies occur at numerous island and mainland sites along the south and west coasts of South Africa and the population is contiguous with the population in Namibia (Oosthuizen 1991; Kirkman et al. 2013).

Distribution

It is thought that historically the Cape Fur Seal population occurred on most, if not all, the coastal islands off South Africa and Namibia. However, uncontrolled seal harvesting and habitat modification resulted in shifts in the distribution of the breeding population, with the bulk of the population currently breeding at mainland sites while colonies at many former breeding islands are extinct (Kirkman et al. 2007). Since the 1970s there has been range expansion and a considerable increase in the number of breeding colonies from 23 to 40 (Kirkman et al. 2013). While the eastern-most extent of the breeding range has remained at Algoa Bay in South Africa, the northern limit has recently extended from northern Namibia to Ilha dos Tigres in southern Angola. Angola has one breeding colony of Cape Fur Seals forming the north-western limit of the population’s breeding distribution with Algoa Bay forming the eastern limit. Cape Fur Seals also occur at several non-breeding colonies or temporary haul-out sites throughout their range, while vagrants have been sighted as far afield as Gabon (Thibault 1999) and the Prince Edward Islands (Kerley 1983).

Within the assessment area, the range of the breeding population is between Black Rocks in Algoa Bay, and Buchu Twins, which lies just south of the Orange River mouth. New breeding colonies have been established within this range in recent years, and some locations of historical breeding colonies such as Vondeling Island (Kirkman et al. 2013) and the Robberg Peninsula in Plettenberg Bay (Huisamen et al. 2011) have been re-colonised.

Cape Fur Seals are generally not migratory. However, small numbers do move eastwards to follow the Sardine Run during winter (O’Donoghue et al. 2010). While this species breeds seasonally, haul-outs are occupied year-round (David 1987a). Feeding is generally restricted to the continental shelf area (David 1987b).

Population trend

Trend

The size of the Cape Fur Seal population in the early 1990s was estimated at about 1.7 million individuals aged one and older (Butterworth et al. 1995). Despite range expansion, the overall population size appears to have remained relatively stable since the early 1990s, according to pup count trends (Kirkman et al. 2007). Several new breeding colonies have established, especially in the north of Namibia and southern Angola, offset by declines in other colonies, especially in the south of Namibia (Kirkman et al. 2013). Currently, approximately 40 breeding colonies are found throughout the range of the species, compared with 23 in the early 1970s (Kirkman et al. 2013). The current size of the population in South Africa also appears similar to the early 1990s, based on pup count trends (Kirkman et al. 2013). Given that some 40% of the total population occurs in South Africa (Kirkman et al. 2007, 2013), the population in this country (aged one and older) is expected to be about 680,000 individuals. There are currently 16 breeding colonies in South Africa (Kirkman et al. 2013).

While the breeding colonies are separated by distances of up to several hundred kilometres, tag data (Oosthuizen 1991) and genetic evidence indicate that there is substantial movement between them (Matthee et al. 2006). Thus, there is gene flow between Angolan, Namibian and South African populations.

In 2004, some 75% of Cape Fur Seals bred at three sites: the Atlas Bay-Wolf Bay-Long Islands Group and Cape Cross in Namibia, and Kleinzee in South Africa. While the abundances of the larger breeding colonies are relatively stable, they do experience fluctuations (Kirkman et al. 2013). These fluctuations are greater in southern Namibian breeding colonies (Kirkman et al. 2013), which have experienced major mortality events due to the impact of poor environmental conditions on prey populations (Roux 1998). In 2009, pup production at the Kleinzee breeding colony, which accounts for the majority of the South African population, had declined by about 40% from its peak rate (Kirkman et al. 2013). Smaller breeding colonies, most of which are estimated to contain more than 1,000 adults (Kirkman et al. 2007), tend to experience greater fluctuations than larger breeding colonies (Kirkman et al. 2007, 2013). Towards the east of their distribution, the relatively small colony on Robberg Peninsula is increasing rapidly, now numbering well above 3,000 individuals (Huisamen et al. 2011).

Generation length has been calculated at 9.1 years (Pacifici et al. 2013). Population change over three generations from 1982–2009 has been positive (Kirkman et al. 2013).

Threats

Bycatch in fisheries operations (e.g. trawls, purse-seines) and entanglement in marine debris (mostly materials associated with fishing) result in the mortality of Cape Fur Seals. Numbers affected have been estimated to be low (< 1% of population size) (Shaughnessy 1980; Wickens et al. 1992), although bycatch could result in localised depletion of numbers. The numbers of seals killed illegally by fishermen, especially where seals interfere with fishing operations (e.g. line or long-line fisheries) are unknown, but potentially higher than bycatch- or entanglement-related mortality levels (Wickens et al. 1992; David & Wickens 2003). Effects of seal-fishery operational interactions on the seal population should be re-examined, especially given the growth of some fisheries since the previous assessments (e.g. long-lining, midwater trawling).

Seals prey on several species that are also targeted by commercial or recreational fisheries (David 1987b; Wickens et al. 1992). The effects of these trophic interactions with fisheries on the seal population are difficult to quantify given the complexities of the marine food web and the fact that seals also prey on a range of other species that are not targeted by fisheries (David 1987b). However, trophic interactions with fisheries potentially pose a much greater threat to the seal population than operational interactions, especially considering increasing trends in fishing effort and declining catch rate trends (e.g. Mann 2013). This may be exacerbated by shifts in prey distribution and abundance associated with ecosystem changes (e.g. related to climate change). As an example, there has been a recent south and eastward shift in the epicentre of anchovy and sardine biomass along the South African coast (Roy et al. 2007; Coetzee et al. 2008) which would have negatively impacted on availability of these prey items to some colonies.

The Cape Fur Seal has been impacted by natural mass mortality events (affecting pups as well as older age classes). These have been associated with unfavourable environmental conditions with detrimental effects on prey populations and therefore feeding conditions (Gerber & Hillborn 2001). Thus far, such events are only known for Namibia and one such event, in 1994/95, was the largest mass die off recorded for any seal species (Harwood 2002). However, ecosystem changes, possibly associated with climate change, could conceivably threaten the population in the assessment area with similar mass die offs in the future. Such events would likely be exacerbated by fishing pressure, just as the 1994/95 event in Namibia is believed to have been intensified by high levels of fishing at the time (Boyer & Hampton 2001). In recent years relatively high numbers of dead or malnourished stranded Cape Fur Seals have been observed on the west coast of the country, where fish stocks are known to be depleted (Department of Environmental Affairs unpubl. data).

Other potential threats of climatic changes include predicted sea level rises and increased frequencies of extreme weather events (e.g. storms). These may threaten the viability of seal colonies at small, low lying islands such as Black Rocks in Algoa Bay (Stewardson 1999) and could result in localised depletions of numbers. A further threat is increased mortality, especially of young pups, associated with increased incurrence of heat stress caused by increased air temperatures, a decrease in cooling winds or increased numbers of hot days per year. This threat may be most relevant to mainland colonies (e.g. de Villiers & Roux 1992).

Several morbillivirus epidemics have occurred in true seal (Phocid) populations in the northern hemisphere, and it is thought that the infections were transmitted to the seals by domestic dogs or terrestrial carnivores (Kennedy et al. 2000). Although no epidemic diseases are known to have infected Cape Fur Seals historically, there is considerable risk for disease transmission to the population through exposure to domestic or feral dogs and terrestrial carnivores such as Black-backed Jackal, potentially resulting in mass mortality. Jackals, which hunt and scavenge in mainland seal colonies, are thought to be ideal vectors of disease because they are highly sociable and may range far. The health of individuals and their vulnerability to disease can be affected by feeding conditions (availability of prey), therefore risk of disease may be exacerbated by the effects of climatic changes and/or overfishing on the ecosystem.

Cape Fur Seals were hunted heavily during the 17th to 19th centuries and were reduced to low levels, but have recovered under protective legislation first introduced in 1893 (Butterworth et al. 1995). Under protection, the population has increased greatly, although it is unknown whether it has recovered to pre-exploitation levels (Kirkman et al. 2007). Commercial seal harvesting in South Africa was suspended in 1990 but continues in neighbouring Namibia. Given ongoing high harvesting levels at the three largest seal colonies in Namibia (Japp et al. 2012), there is potential for Namibia to be a sink area for seals from the assessment region. These include breeding age males as well as first year animals, both of which have been recorded moving from South Africa to Namibia (Oosthuizen 1991). The extent of such movement or the rate at which these animals are harvested is unknown, but is unlikely to result in severe population declines in the assessment region.

Human disturbance, associated for example with tourist activities, can potentially impact the target species on both short- and long-term scales. Short-term changes are immediate and are often easily identifiable as behavioural responses. Cape Fur Seals typically flee from human presence when on land, so extreme cases of disturbance can result in stampeding, potentially causing injury or death, especially to pups. However, short-term behavioural changes may also lead to long-term changes that are more subtle but which may still impact negatively on individuals or populations. In the context of seal colonies, the effects of human disturbance could include modification of behaviour. If this results in increased activity, displacement of animals from favoured areas, it may lead to a decrease in available energy. Such disturbance could also potentially disrupt mother-pup bonds, leading to abandonment of offspring (Boren et al. 2002; Gales et al. 2003). This threat is localised affecting only the eight colonies currently associated with tourism. Changes in human land-use patterns are also of concern. The mainland colony at Kleinsee, which supports two-thirds of South Africa’s pup production, is afforded some protection by virtue of the restricted access mining lease area within which it is situated (Shaughnessy 1980). Should mining cease and the area become accessible to the public, this colony may become threatened through human interference.

Like other fur seals, Cape Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills which can reduce the insulation properties of their fur or be ingested in toxic concentrations (Kirkwood & Goldsworthy 2013). Other anthropogenic toxins could potentially also lead to individual or mass mortalities by damaging the immune, endocrine or nervous systems of animals, and disrupting growth and resistance to disease (Kirkwood & Goldsworthy 2013). An example is organochlorines (pesticides) that can enter the marine environment in agricultural runoff or urban effluent. Because organochlorines are resistant to degradation they readily accumulate in marine food chains and can concentrate in higher predators such as the Cape Fur Seal.

Uses and trade

The Cape Fur Seal was formerly harvested commercially in South Africa until this was suspended in 1990 (Hanks 1990; Wickens et al. 1991). The killing of seals for profit in South Africa is now prohibited in terms of the Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA 1998). It is still harvested commercially in Namibia and is also hunted for sport (trophy) in that country (Campbell et al. 2011; Japp et al. 2012). Products of commercial seal harvesting include fur products from pelts, leather products from skin, medicinal uses (genitalia and oil) and fodder (meat, bone meal and oil), as well as subsistence consumption (meat) (Campbell et al. 2011).

Conservation

Although Cape Fur Seals have been protected in South Africa since 1893, they were still subject to government-run or government-authorised commercial harvests until 1990 (Wickens et al. 1991; Butterworth et al. 1995). The Seabirds and Seals Protection Act (SBSPA; Act no. 46 of 1973), provides broad protection for seals in South Africa, and killing of seals for profit is now prohibited in terms of the Marine Living Resources Act (Act no. 18 of 1998; Policy on the management of seals, seabirds and shorebirds. Government Gazette No. 30534, 2007).
Apart from the protection of island breeding habitat of seals in terms of the SBSPA, some of the seal colonies occur within or adjacent to marine protected areas (MPAs) or reserves. These include the colonies situated at:
  • Black Rocks (Bird Island MPA, SANParks)
  • Robberg Peninsula (Robberg Nature Reserve and Marine Protected Area, CapeNature)
  • Quoin Rock and Geyser Rock (Dyer Island Nature Reserve Complex, CapeNature)
  • Duikerklip (Table Mountain National Park MPA, SANParks)
  • Vondeling Island (Vondeling Island Reserve, CapeNature)
  • Bird Island, Lambert’s Bay (Bird Island Reserve, CapeNature).
Besides Vondeling Island, seals also haul out on other islands adjacent to the West Coast National Park around which MPAs have been declared (e.g. Jutten Island, SANParks). Three mainland breeding colonies in the Northern Cape including the South Africa’s largest Cape Fur Seal breeding colony near Kleinsee, occur in mining lease areas where human access is restricted, affording these colonies a level of protection.

While no specific interventions are necessary at present, Cape Fur Seals would benefit from more stringent regulation of fisheries and protection of breeding habitat. For example, mitigation measures in New Zealand’s hoki trawl fishery reduced Hooker’s Sea Lion (Phocarctos hookeri) bycatch by almost 90%, and the population showed signs of recovery following their implementation (Porritt & Goodman 2005). Ongoing monitoring and research within the assessment region is also required.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:
  • Continuation of regular population censuses (aerial pup surveys).
  • Monitor changes in key population parameters that may be related to climatic or other changes.
  • Regional (transboundary) cooperation with regard to research and monitoring, including standardisation of research methods.
  • Regulation of seal ecotourism activities.
  • Ensuring protection of mainland seal colonies situated in current mining lease areas where human access has been restricted, in the event that these areas become accessible to the public.
  • Prevention of direct mortality due to fisheries operations.

Research priorities: The following research topics are currently being investigated:
  • Demography, diet and foraging behaviour of Cape Fur Seals in Algoa Bay (Port Elizabeth Museum, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and Department of Environmental Affairs, DEA).
  • Seal-seabirds interaction at Vondeling Island (DEA/CapeNature, ongoing).
  • Diet of the Cape Fur Seal at key colonies on the West and South Coasts (DEA, long-term monitoring effort).
  • Cape Fur Seal pup trends from comprehensive aerial surveys (DEA, long term monitoring effort).
  • White Shark predation risk effects on seal foraging dynamics and stress levels: implications for ecosystem structure and function (DEA and University of Miami).
  • Identifying important foraging zones for Cape Fur Seals (DEA/Deakin University).
  • Monitoring of marine debris entangling the Cape Fur Seal (DEA long-term monitoring effort).
  • Assessing the effects of “swim-with-seal” tourism activities on a seal colony (Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University/DEA).
The following research topics should be investigated:
  • Updated assessments of extent of trophic interactions between seals and fishing, including development of population and bioenergetics models to determine consumption rates, and spatial models of foraging effort distribution.
  • Updated assessments of operational interactions between seals and fisheries to provide estimates of effects on the population and revised recommendations for mitigation.
  • Assessment of effects of seal ecotourism activities on seal colonies.
  • Assessments of effects of variability in the environment and prey availability on the population, through long-term monitoring of key parameters or indices, e.g. diet, foraging trip duration, foraging distributions, breeding phenology, abortion rates, pup birth mass and growth, early survival rates, at key locations.
  • Monitoring of incidences of dead or live stranded animals, including malnourished, sick or entangled animals and determining cause of death where applicable (relevant to monitoring the health of the population, detecting unusual events and identifying their causes).
  • Investigation of population parameters required for extending pup counts to total population size (including e.g. birth and survival rates and variability in these between areas), given that assumptions for previous assessments may not be valid for the current population.
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Citizens can contribute by reporting of stranded, sick, injured or entangled seals to appropriate authorities, as opposed to intervening on their own, which could result in injury or disease transmission. This can also assist with monitoring the health of the population, detecting unusual events and identifying their causes.
  • Report sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iSpot and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas

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,@article{2060,
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,@article{2060,
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,@techreport{2060,
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,@article{2060,
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,@article{2060,
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,@techreport{2060,
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,@inbook{2060,
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,@techreport{2060,
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,@inbook{2060,
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,]
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